PhLE Module 1: General Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering general chemistry, atomic theory, thermodynamics, kinetics, and periodic trends based on the provided PhLE Module 1 lecture notes.

Solid

A state of matter characterized by a definite shape, definite volume, and molecular motion described as vibration; it is non-compressible.

Liquid

A state of matter with an indefinite shape that assumes the container's shape, a definite volume, and molecular motion described as gliding.

Gas

A state of matter with indefinite shape and volume that is compressible, exhibiting constant and random molecular motion.

Plasma

The 4th state of matter and the most abundant in the universe, consisting of $p^+$ and $e^-$, making it greatly affected by magnetic fields.

Melting

The phase change from solid to liquid; also known as fusion, liquefaction, or thawing.

Freezing

The phase change from liquid to solid.

Evaporation

The phase change from liquid to gas.

Condensation

The phase change from gas to liquid.

Sublimation

The phase change from solid to gas, exemplified by naphthalene balls.

Deposition

The phase change from gas to solid, exemplified by dry ice or cardice.

Recombination

The phase change from plasma to gas, also called deionization.

Ionization

The phase change from gas to plasma.

Pure Substance

A classification of matter that includes elements and compounds.

Element

The simplest form of a substance.

Compound

Two or more chemicals united that can be separated via chemical means.

Mixture

Two or more substances wherein individual identities are retained and can be separated via physical means, such as distillation.

Homogenous Mixture

A single-phase mixture, also known as a solution.

Heterogenous Mixture

A mixture with two phases, such as a suspension or colloid (e.g., milk).

Extrinsic Property

A property dependent on the amount of matter present, such as mass, weight, volume, pressure, entropy, and enthalpy.

Intrinsic Property

A property independent of the amount of matter present, such as density, specific gravity, viscosity, velocity, and temperature.

Density of Water

$1\,g/mL$ or $1\,cc$.

Viscosity

The resistance of a fluid to flow.

Law of Conservation of Mass

A law stated by Antoine Lavoisier stating that mass or matter is always constant and neither created nor destroyed.

Law of Definite Proportions

Also known as Proust's Law, stated by Joseph Proust, it asserts that chemical compounds always contain the exact proportion of elements in a fixed ratio by mass.

Law of Multiple Proportion

Stated by John Dalton, it describes how elements forming more than one compound can be expressed in fixed whole numbers by mass.

Law of Combining Weights

States that proportions by weight when a chemical reaction takes place can be expressed in small integral units.

Intermolecular Force (IFA) Strength Order

Solid > Liquid > Gas > Plasma.

Enthalpy Order of Matter States

Plasma > Gas > Liquid > Solid.

Democritus

The philosopher who contributed the concept of the 'Atomos' meaning 'Indivisible'.

John Dalton

Proposed the Billiard Bell model and stated that matter is made up of atoms as the basic unit.

Isotopes (Dalton's Postulate)

Atoms that are alike for a given element.

Isobars (Dalton's Postulate)

Atoms of different elements that differ in size, mass, and other properties.

JJ Thompson

Proposed the Plum pudding or raisin bread model, featuring electrons in a positive framework.

Ernest Rutherford

Discovered protons and proposed the nuclear model based on the Gold foil or alpha-scattering experiment.

Niel Bohr

Proposed the Planetary model of the atom, which is the most commonly used.

Erwin Schrodinger

Proposed the Quantum, Mechanical, or electron cloud model which estimates the probability of finding an electron in a certain position.

Protons

Positively charged subatomic particles discovered by Ernest Rutherford that serve as the basis for atomic numbers.

Electrons

Negatively charged subatomic particles that are 1,836 times lighter than protons.

JJ Thompson experiment

Used the Cathode ray tube to determine the electron $m/z$ ratio.

RA Milikan

Conducted the Oil drop experiment to measure the accurate charge and mass of an electron.

Neutrons

Subatomic particles with no charge, discovered by James Chadwick; their sum with protons equals the atomic mass.

Capillary electrophoresis

The separation of compounds based on electrophoretic mobility.

Eugene Goldstein

The scientist who discovered anode rays.

Anode

A positive electrode where oxidation occurs and electrons exit.

Cathode

A negative electrode where reduction occurs and electrons enter.

AN OX

Mnemonic for 'Oxidation happens in Anode'.

RED CAT

Mnemonic for 'Reduction happens in Cathode'.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in an atom.

Mass Number

The sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons.

Sulfur dioxide ($SO_2$)

Acts as a reducing agent or antioxidant.

Isotopes

Atoms with the same number of protons (atomic number) and element type but different atomic mass.

Isobars

Atoms with the same atomic mass but belonging to different elements.

Isotones

Atoms with the same number of neutrons but belonging to different elements.

Isomers

Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures.

Molecule

An aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds.

Ions

Atoms or molecules with a net positive or negative charge.

Empirical Formula

The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.

Van der Waals Forces

Intermolecular forces between molecules that are weak, short-lived, and created by a molecule's polarizability.

Keesom Orientation

A type of Intermolecular FA between two dipoles (Diplole-Dipole).

Debye Induction

A type of Intermolecular FA between a dipole and an induced dipole (Dipole-Induced Dipole).

London Dispersion

The weakest Intermolecular FA, occurring between non-polar induced dipoles (Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole), such as in benzene.

H-bonding

The strongest Intermolecular FA, occurring between Hydrogen and electronegative atoms like S, O, N, or X.

Intramolecular Forces

Forces within a molecule, such as glycosidic (ether) bonds or peptide (amide) bonds.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond involving the sharing of electrons between nonmetals.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond involving the transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal, such as in $NaCl$.

VESPR Theory

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory; predicts the geometry of a molecule based on bonded and unbonded electron pairs.

Linear Geometry

A geometry with an angle of $180^{\circ}$ and $sp$ hybridization, found in $CO_2$ and alkynes.

Trigonal Planar

A geometry with an angle of $120^{\circ}$ and $sp^2$ hybridization, found in alkenes.

Tetrahedral

A geometry with an angle of $109.5^{\circ}$ and $sp^3$ hybridization, found in alkanes and methane.

VILEORA

Mnemonic for 'Valence Increase, Lose Electrons, Oxidation, Reducing Agent'.

VDGEROA

Mnemonic for 'Valence Decrease, Gain Electrons, Reduction, Oxidizing Agent'.

Valence Bond Theory

States that bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons from overlapping atomic orbitals.

Sigma bond ($\sigma$)

A stronger bond formed by headway overlap of spherical (S) orbitals.

Pi bond ($\pi$)

A weaker bond formed by sideways overlap of dumbbell (P) orbitals.

Molecular Orbital Theory

States that bonds are formed from the interaction of atomic orbitals to create molecular orbitals.

Bonding Orbital

A molecular orbital associated with lower energy and stability.

Antibonding Orbital

A molecular orbital associated with higher energy and instability.

Synthesis Reaction

A reaction type where $A + B \rightarrow AB$, also called combination or direct union.

Decomposition

A reaction type where $AB \rightarrow A + B$, also known as analysis.

Single Displacement

A reaction where $AB + X \rightarrow AX + B$.

Double Displacement

A reaction where $AB + CD \rightarrow AC + BD$, also known as metathesis or exchange.

Metals Reactivity Series Leader

Lithium ($Li$).

Nonmetals Reactivity Series Leader

Fluorine ($F$), followed by Chlorine ($Cl$), based on electronegativity.

Dinitrogen monoxide

The covalent compound with the formula $N_2O$.

Lead (IV) nitrate

The Stock nomenclature for the compound $Pb(NO_3)_4$, also known classically as Plumbic nitrate.

Monovalent Ions (Group 1)

$H, Li, Na, K, Ag$.

Multivalent Metals ($Sn, Pb$)

Metals with variable charges of $+2$ and $+4$.

Hypochlorite

The oxyanion $ClO^-$.

Perchlorate

The oxyanion $ClO_4^-$.

Sulfate

The oxyanion $SO_4^{2-}$.

Bicarbonate

The hydrogen-containing polyatomic anion $HCO_3^-$ (Hydrogen carbonate).

Avogadro’s Number

$1\,mole = 6.022 \times 10^{23}\text{ atoms/molecules}$.

Aufbau Principle

States that atoms are built by the progressive filling of energy levels, where lower energy levels are occupied first.

Principal Quantum Number

Symbolized by $n$ (1 to 7), it determines the size of the orbital and the distance of the electron from the nucleus.

Azimuthal Quantum Number

Symbolized by $\ell$ (0 to 3), it determine the angular momentum and shape of the orbital/subshell.

l = 0

Represents the 's' (sharp) subshell, which has a spherical shape.

l = 1

Represents the 'p' (principle) subshell, which has a dumbbell shape.

l = 2

Represents the 'd' (diffuse) subshell, which has a clover leaf shape.

Magnetic Quantum Number

Symbolized by $m_\ell$, it determines the orientation of the orbital in space.

Magnetic Spin

Symbolized by $m_s$ ($+1/2$ or $-1/2$), it describes the magnetic moment or rotation of the electron.