Psychology Research Methods Notes

Flashcards from Psychology Research Methods Notes

Empiricists

Using evidence from the senses or from instruments that assist the senses as a base for conclusions

Theory

A set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to each other

Hypothesis

A way of stating the specific outcome the researcher expects to observe if the theory is correct

Data

A set of observations

Falsifiability

A feature of scientific theory where it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong

Parsimony

The simplest solution is better

Basic Research

Goal is to enhance the general understanding of how things work

Applied Research

Solve a specific problem

Translational Research

Uses lessons from basic research to develop/test applications

Availability Heuristic

Things that we vividly remember/know can make us biased

Present / Present Bias

The tendency to rely on evidence that is present

Confirmation Bias

Only looking for information that proves what we know is right

Bias Blind Spot

The tendency to believe that WE are unable to fall for biases

Variables

Anything the researcher measures or manipulates that can vary or change

Dependent Variable

An outcome variable; ALWAYS measured, NEVER manipulated

Independent Variable

A predictor variable; Can be manipulated or measured

Conceptual Variable

An abstract concept exa; stress, love, or motivation

Operational Variable

The specific way a variable will be measured/manipulated in a specific study

Frequency Claims

Description of a SINGLE variable

Association Claims

Description of the relationship between 2 or more variables

Casual Claims

a variable CAUSES changes in the other

Construct Validity

Did researchers measure the thing they intended to measure?

Statistical Validity

Do we have enough data points to make such claims?

External Validity

The findings will GENERALIZE to other populations; generalizability

Internal Validity

Can the observed results on the Dependent Variable be explained by anything else besides the Independent Variable?

Nominal

categorical variable.

Ordinal

ordered categories

Interval

ordered + equal spacing, but no true zero.

Ratio

ordered + equal spacing + true zero

Reliability

Consistency, stability, or dependability of a measure

Validity

Is the measure an accurate representation of the construct we want to measure?

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Measures the strength + direction of association between two variables

Cronbach’s alpha (a)

Used in surveys with multiple questions(how well a group questions measure the same idea.)

Face Validity

looks like it measures what it's supposed to

Content Validity

Are ALL parts of this theory included in the study?

Criterion Validity

Does this measure correlate with a relevant behavioral outcome

Convergent Validity

Does this measure also correlate strongly with other studies that may be similar

Discriminant Validity

test is measuring only what it’s supposed to measure, and not something else.

Likert Scale

A rating scale with a range of answer choices

Leading Questions

Questions that lead participants to a certain answer

Double-Barreled Questions

A question that is actually two questions, confusing the participant

Negatively Worded Questions

Questions that have words like “never” or other synonyms that can confuse participants

Observer Bias

Bias in what the researcher wants to believe: expectations

Observer Effects

changes in a person’s behavior because they know they are being watched

Reactivity

people change their behavior because they know they are part of a study.

Population

The entire set of people we are interested in

Census

A study that involves the entire population

Sample

smaller group of people you actually study, taken from a larger group

Random Sampling

All members of a population have an equal chance of being included in the sample

Unrepresentative Sample

SOME people in the population have a bigger chance of being included in the sample than others

Cluster Sampling

Breaks the population into groups, with each group having a chance of being included in the study

Multistage Sampling

Further sampling of Cluster Sampling

Stratified

Similar to Cluster Sampling EXCEPT the population is split into MEANINGFUL groups (like race/ethnicity)

Oversampling

Adding more people from small groups so the results are more accurate for everyone.

Convenience

Sampling people who are convenient to sample

Self-Selection

Participants who are sampled are those who approach the researcher first

Snowball

Those who are sampled are asked to tell their friends

Quota

A target number of people from each group that you include in your study.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Remember, p cannot be 0 or -1

Covariance

Do the results show that the variables are correlated

Temporal Precedence

Does the method establish which variable came first in time

Internal Validity

Is there another variable that is associated with both A + B, independently

Auto-Correlations

when a variable is correlated with itself over time.

Cross-Sectional Correlations

two variables measured at the same time are compared to see if they are related.

Cross-Lag Correlations

one variable measured earlier is related to a different variable measured later.

Multiple Regression Analysis II

What are the differences between b coefficient table versus beta table?

Mediator Variable

Why are two variables related?

Moderator Variable

When / For Whom are two variables related?

Confound Variable

Any other Factors that we want to CONTROL for?

Beneficence

Maximize well-being + Minimize harm

Coercion

Negative consequences for not participating

Undue Influence

Positive consequences

Deception

Used in studies when the truth can change how people behave

Omission

The failure to mention (omit) details

Commision

Creation of lies

Plagiarism

The use of others’ ideas as if they were your own

Data Fabrication

The creation of data

Data Falsification

Changes in real data to fudge the numbers

Design Confounds

something else changes along with what you're testing and messes up your results,

Random Assignment

All participants are randomly assigned to be in either of the two conditions

Systematic Variability

hidden pattern in participant differences that lines up with your independent variable and might mess up your results.

Unsystematic Variability

Something that differs among participants, but DOES NOT systematically co-occur with the independent variable

Posttest-ONLY Design

ly tested once—after the treatment or condition.

Pretest/Posttest Design

testing before and after

Matched Group Design

paired up based on similarities

Treatment Group

receives the treatment or condition you are testing.

Control Group

The condition that is supposed to represent “no treatment”

Placebo Group

A control group that believes they’re in a treatment group

Manipulated Variable (IV)

he thing the researcher changes on purpose to see if it causes an effect

Measured Variable (DV)

Records of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors

Control Variables

Any variable that the researcher intentionally holds constant across conditions

Within-Participants Design

the same people are in all conditions of the experiment.

Concurrent-Measures within Design

exposed to all conditions at the same time, and the researcher sees which one they prefer or respond to first.

Testing Effect

Participants take the same measures twice and improve

Maturation Effect

Changes happen concurrently with developmental changes, such as in children

History Effect

Outside social forces that affect most of the participants unsystematically

Attrition Effect

Participants drop out of the study over time

Instrumentation Effect

a change in the measuring tool (or how it's used) affects the results of a study.

Regression to the Mean Effect

Participants will regress to the mean the second time; extreme scores will regress to the mean overtime

Observer Bias

Researchers’ expectations influence the results