AP Psych

Cultural norms

Shared expectations and rules that guide behavior within a society or group.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.

Hindsight bias

The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one’s own abilities or knowledge.

Experimental

A research method that involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method involving the observation of subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event to explore complex issues.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables change together.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify patterns or overall effects.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable/Falsifiability

The ability of a hypothesis to be proven false through evidence or experimentation.

Operational definitions

Specific explanations of abstract concepts that allow them to be measured or tested.

Independent variable(s)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable(s)

The variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Confounding variables

Extraneous factors that may affect the dependent variable and lead to erroneous conclusions.

Sample

A subset of a population selected for research purposes.

Population

The entire group of individuals or instances about whom researchers seek to draw conclusions.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Random sampling

A sampling method that gives each member of the population an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience sampling

A non-random sampling method that selects individuals who are easiest to reach.

Sampling bias

A bias that occurs when the sample is not representative of the population.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to the larger population.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison.

Placebo

A substance with no therapeutic effect used as a control in testing new drugs.

Single-blind

An experimental design in which participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind

An experimental design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Qualitative

Research that focuses on understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences through non-numerical data.

Quantitative

Research that focuses on quantifying variables and analyzing statistical relationships.

Peer review

The process by which research is evaluated by experts in the field before publication.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained.

Institutional review

An assessment process to ensure that research involving human subjects is ethical and protects participants.

Informed consent

The process of providing potential research participants with information about a study so they can make an informed decision about participation.

Informed assent

The process of obtaining agreement from individuals who are not legally able to provide informed consent, such as minors.

Protection from harm

Ethical principle ensuring that participants are not exposed to unnecessary risks during research.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle of keeping participants' information private and secure.

Deception

The act of misleading participants about the true nature of a study, used only when necessary and justified.

Research confederates

Individuals who are part of the research team but act as participants to manipulate the social situation.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the study's purpose and any deception used after their participation.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistical measures that describe the center of a data set, including mean, median, and mode.

Mean

The average value of a data set, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.

Median

The middle value in a data set when the values are arranged in order.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Normal curve

A bell-shaped distribution that represents the frequency of scores in a population, with specific percentages of data falling within standard deviations.

Variation