Social Psych Psycholgists (Test 1)

Norman Triplett (1890s)

A social psychologist known for pioneering research in social facilitation. His experiment showed that bicyclists performed better in groups and that children reeled in fishing lines faster in groups than alone, concluding that competition enhances performance.

Max Ringelmann (1880s or 1913)

Pioneered research on social loafing, revealing that individuals exert less effort in groups than alone. His rope-pulling experiments showed that as group size increases, individual accountability and effort decrease, resulting in diminished performance.

Gordon Allport (1940-60s)

A key figure in personality psychology, Allport is known for his work on the nature of prejudice and the concept of social attitudes. He emphasized the importance of individual differences and is often regarded as the founder of modern personality psychology.

Edward Ross (1908)

A prominent social psychologist who contributed to the study of social dynamics and group behavior. He is best known for his work on the influence of social forces on individual conduct and the development of sociology as a discipline.

McDougal (1908)

An influential social psychologist, McDougall studied instinctive behavior and proposed that human actions are driven by inherent instincts. His work laid foundational concepts for understanding social psychology and behavior.

Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter (1956)

Infiltrated a group of true believers expecting alien intervention. When the aliens did not appear, the group maintained their belief through confirmation bias, claiming their good deeds spared the planet. This study highlighted cognitive dissonance, illustrating how individuals rationalize failures to maintain their beliefs.

Li (1975)

Surveyed the Taiwanese population and found a strong correlation between the number of electrical appliances owned and birth control usage, indicating that income influences both. This study demonstrated how socioeconomic factors, such as access to technology, impact family planning decisions and birth rates.

Robin Dunbar (1993, 1998)

A British anthropologist and psychologist known for proposing Dunbar's number, which suggests a cognitive limit to the number of stable relationships a person can maintain, typically around 150. His work explores the implications of social group size on human behavior and social networks. Dunbar's research indicates that beyond this limit, individuals may struggle to maintain meaningful interpersonal connections, influencing social structures and group dynamics.

Charles Horton Cooley (1902)

An American sociologist best known for his concept of the "looking-glass self," which describes how individuals develop their self-concept based on their perceptions of how others view them. Cooley's work emphasizes the importance of social interactions in shaping personal identity and self-esteem. He argued that people form their self-image through three steps: imagining how they appear to others, imagining how others judge that appearance, and developing a self-concept based on those judgments.

Vazire (2010)

A study that explored how self-reports of personality traits can differ significantly from peer reports, highlighting the limitations of self-perception in understanding one's own behavior. Vazire emphasized the relevance of external perspectives in accurately assessing personality and interpersonal relationships. This research showed that individuals often have blind spots regarding their own traits, whereas peers can provide a more objective view of a person's behavior and characteristics.

Festinger (1954)

An American social psychologist known for developing the theory of cognitive dissonance, which explains how individuals experience psychological discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes. Festinger's work fundamentally altered the understanding of motivation and human behavior in social contexts. His research posits that in order to reduce this dissonance, individuals are motivated to change their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Goldstein & Cialdini, 2007

A study that examined the principles of social influence and persuasion, focusing on how individuals can be swayed by various contextual factors in their decision-making processes. Goldstein and Cialdini's research highlights the importance of social norms and the role they play in shaping behaviors. They found that people often conform to perceived group norms, which can significantly impact choices and behavior.

Laird, 1974

A study investigating the relationship between facial expressions and emotional experience suggested that people's emotions can be influenced by their own facial movements. Laird's work contributed to the understanding of the facial feedback hypothesis, which posits that expressions can affect our emotional states.

Trafimow et al. (1991)

A study that explored the interplay between culture and self-concept, specifically examining how cultural contexts influence individuals' perceptions of personal and social identities. Trafimow et al. found significant variations in self-construals across different cultural groups. Their findings highlight the influence of cultural factors on how individuals perceive themselves and interact with others.

Nesbitt & Wilson (1977)

A study that examined the impact of conscious reasoning on judgments and decision-making revealed that people often lack awareness of the factors influencing their choices. Nesbitt and Wilson's research emphasized the disconnect between conscious beliefs and unconscious influences. They found that individuals frequently attribute their decisions to rational reasons, ignoring hidden cognitive biases.

Mor et al., 2010

Gave participants diaries, and when the beeper went off, they were asked to record those thoughts. Most of the diary thoughts were self-focused. Not doing introspection. The study by Mor et al. (2010) explored how people engage in self-referential thinking in daily life through the use of beeper diaries. The findings indicated that participants predominantly recorded self-focused thoughts, suggesting a lack of introspection despite the opportunity for reflective thinking.

Leary & Baumeister, 2000

A study that investigated the need to belong and its psychological consequences. Leary and Baumeister found that social exclusion can lead to negative emotions and behaviors, highlighting the fundamental role of social connections in human psychology. They proposed that the need for belonging is a crucial factor influencing social behavior and mental health.

Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynski (1997)

A study that introduced the concept of Terror Management Theory, which posits that individuals' awareness of mortality significantly influences their thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes. Greenberg, Solomon, and Pyszczynski found that reminders of death can lead to increased adherence to cultural beliefs and defensive behaviors to bolster self-esteem. This theory suggests that fear of death drives human behavior, influencing actions to maintain self-esteem and cultural values.

Kling et al. (1999)

Investigated the effects of social rejection and its impact on self-esteem and emotional well-being. The study highlighted how feelings of rejection can influence individuals' psychological states and social behaviors. The research by Kling et al. (1999) examined how social rejection affects self-esteem, revealing that individuals who feel rejected experience lower self-worth and emotional distress. This study underscores the significant impact of social relationships on psychological well-being.

Gentile et al. (2009)

A study that explored the influence of video game play on aggressive behavior suggested that exposure to violent games can increase aggression in players. Gentile et al. found a connection between video game usage and desensitization to violence, proposing that repeated exposure may impact social behavior and empathy. They observed that higher video game violence correlates with increased aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in players, suggesting concerns about the effects of violent media.

Boehler et al., 2006

Conducted an experiment where a respected surgeon provided one of three types of feedback to medical students on their ability to tie surgical knots: complementary feedback, general feedback, or specific harsh feedback. The study measured the effectiveness of these feedback types on student performance, with the dependent variable being the quality of the knots tied at the end of training. Results showed that students receiving specific feedback performed significantly better than those in the control group, demonstrating the importance of precise, constructive criticism in skill acquisition and training.

Baumeister (1989)

Research by Baumeister suggested that rather than having very high or very low self-esteem, the most productive and adaptive form of self-esteem is found at a moderate level. This moderate self-esteem allows individuals to be resilient, maintain better interpersonal relationships, and exhibit openness to feedback. High self-esteem can lead to overconfidence, while low self-esteem can result in vulnerability and withdrawal. Baumeister's work emphasizes the need for a balanced self-view for optimal psychological and social functioning.

Pelham et al. (2002)

An unusual statistical tendency for people to flock to areas, jobs, and people that are somewhat similar to their name, happening at a higher rate than what is statistically likely. This phenomenon, known as "nominative determinism," suggests that individuals may unconsciously gravitate towards careers or environments that align with their names, reflecting a deeper connection between identity and personal choices.

Cialdini et al. (1976)

Went to college campuses after their football team had a win and a loss. Just counted the number of people wearing college apparel. People were more likely to wear the apparel after a win than a loss. Was trying to emphasize their relationship status. This study highlighted the concept of opportunistic self-enhancement, showing that individuals display stronger group identification following successes and seek to align themselves with positive group outcomes.

Gilovich, Medvec, & Savitsky, 2000

Had people wear either an embarrassing teacher or a neutral T-shirt and had them walk through a room of 90 participants. Draw their attention by knocking on the door and walking through the room. Then asked the shirt wearer how many people noticed what they were wearing, and then asked the naive people what the person was wearing. The study demonstrated the "spotlight effect," where individuals tend to overestimate how much others notice them. This research highlighted the discrepancy between the self-perception of visibility and actual awareness from others.

Braginski, Braginski, & Ring (1969)

Mental patients were told they were meeting the head psychologist to either be released or moved to a more secure locked ward/ wing. Then record their interactions with this fake psychologist and found the ones told they were being moved were calmer, normal in their interactions. The individuals who were told they were being released acted more extreme, and didn't want to be released. These were people who were voluntarily committed. The study illustrated how expectations can influence behavior and emotional responses in individuals, demonstrating the impact of perceived social roles and future outcomes on mental states.

Bryan, Walton, Rogers, & Dweck (2011)

Asked to speak about the importance of the act of voting or the importance of being someone who voted. Then followed up with the people in the study, asking how many of them voted in the election. Those who asked about being a voter were more likely to vote than the other group. This study examined how identity activation influences voting behavior, showing that emphasizing the identity of being a voter increased the likelihood of actual participation in elections.

Beaman et al. (1979)

Left a Halloween bowl and a sign that said take one, and record how many people actually took one. For half of the people, there was a mirror behind the bowl. When you see yourself, it increases your self-awareness. No mirror = 34% took more than 1. Mirror made them follow the rules at a higher rate. This study demonstrated that self-awareness, prompted by seeing one’s reflection, can lead to more ethical behavior and adherence to social norms.

Bateson et al. (2006)

Used a painting instead of a mirror. You had self-serve coffee, but if you got a coffee, you were expected to pay for it. The painting was either flowers or eyes. The eyes increased self-awareness. When you feel like you’re being watched, you become more self-aware. People were more honest with the eye painting. This study showed that the presence of eye imagery can enhance self-monitoring and honesty in situations requiring ethical decision-making, similar to the effects of direct self-awareness.

Brehm (1966)

Examined the effects of post-decision dissonance, suggesting that individuals will increase their liking for an option they chose and decrease their liking for rejected alternatives to reduce psychological discomfort after making a choice. This phenomenon highlights how people seek to align their beliefs and feelings with their decisions, thereby reducing feelings of regret and justifying their choices.

Lepper et al. (1973)

A study observing kindergarten children’s intrinsic motivation to play with markers. After initial unmotivated play, children were divided into three groups: one told to play, a second promised a reward for playing (extrinsic motivation), and a third surprised with a reward. When observed later, groups one and three showed similar playtime, while the extrinsically motivated group played significantly less, indicating that rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation.

Weick & Guinote (2010)

Investigated how people's motivations and goals influence their perceptions and actions in social environments, demonstrating that situational factors can significantly affect decision-making and social behavior. Everyone does experience this, but the more power you have in a corporation, the more extreme it becomes. They found that individuals with greater power are more likely to act in line with their goals, often leading to more pronounced biases in perception and judgment.

Mischel, Ebbeson, & Zeiss (1972); Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez (1989)

These studies explored the concept of delayed gratification and how individual differences in self-control can influence behaviors in response to immediate versus long-term rewards. They found that individuals who could delay gratification tended to achieve better outcomes in life. They demonstrated that self-control is a key predictor of successful life outcomes, as children who were able to wait for larger rewards displayed better academic and social competencies later in life.

Reifman et al., 1989

As people get older, they don’t care as much if their behaviors meet standards. They still know what the standards are; they just stop caring. This study examined age-related changes in motivation and adherence to social norms, revealing that older adults may become less concerned about conforming to societal expectations while still recognizing them.

Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice (1998)

Put participants into 3 different conditions. The radish condition, a plate of radishes, and a plate of cookies. Radish conditions could have as many radishes as they wanted, but one cookie and vice versa. Control conditions could have whatever they wanted. After they were told to solve a bunch of difficult math problems, they could stop when they wanted, but had a small monetary reward when they finished a problem. The radish group quit much earlier than the other groups. Had no more willpower to keep pushing at the willpower. Other groups had more willpower. This study examined the impact of self-control depletion on effort and persistence, revealing that individuals who exerted self-control in one task (the radish condition) showed reduced persistence on a subsequent task compared to those with fewer restrictions.

Muraven & Baumeister (2000)

Looked at the decisions judges made for parole. Judges typically took longer and made more positive decisions toward the paroling earlier in the day, and a little after lunch. Sleep and food replenish your willpower. This study investigated how willpower affects judges' decisions on parole, revealing that judges made more lenient choices earlier in the day or after meals. It demonstrated the influence of self-control depletion on decision-making.

Danzinger, Levav, & Avnaim-Pesso (2011)

Better for your teacher to grade your essay at the beginning of the grading process rather than at the end. More generosity. This study explored how decision fatigue affects evaluators, showing that judges and teachers are more lenient when making decisions earlier in a session compared to later, when mental resources are diminished.