exam #4 intro to psych

social psychology

the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people.

attribution?

an explanation for someone’s behavior—either based on the situation or the person’s disposition

dispositional attribution

behavior is attributed to internal factors (e.g. Natalie is late because she’s a bad student)

situational attribution

behavior attributed to external circumstances (e.g. Natalie is late because of traffic)

fundamental attribution error

tendency to overestimate the influence of dispositional factors & underestimate situational factors

how can behavior influence attitudes?

people will believe more strongly in what they’ve done — attitudes often follow behavior

foot-in-the-door phenomenon?

agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger one later
(could you grab my mail? ==> while you’re there can you also feed my fish, turn off my AC, etc.)

role-playing affect attitudes (ZImbardo’s Study)

Z. Stanford Prison study showed that adopting roles (guard/prisoner) can shape behavior & attitudes over time

cognitive dissonance (how do you reduce it)

when our attitudes & behaviors conflict, it caused tensions. People reduce it by changing their attitudes or justifying their behavior

peripheral route persuation

fast, based on superficial cues — celebrity endorsements

central route persuasion

evidence & arguments to appeal to reason (features in a car and)

conformity

adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group standard

Asch’s Line Study demonstrated

conformity: 1/3 conformed to incorrect group answers because they wanted to seem right

normative social influence

conformity to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

conformity because we believe others’ interpretations are more accurate

what factors increase conformity?

group size, group importance, no allies, admiring the group, feeling insecure

results of Milgram’s obedience study?

about 66% administered the highest shock, participants showed visible signs of distress (sweating, trembling). Ordinary people are obedient to authority, even when it goes against their morals

conditions increased obedience in the Milgram obedience study?

authority figure was nearby and legitimate, authority supported by institution, victim was at a distance, no role models for defiance

social facilitation

improved performance on simple tasks in presence of others

• public speaking practice => more confidence when in front of an audience than when practicing alone

social loafing

less effort exerted in group tasks when individual performance isn’t accountable

• group project when some bums don’t do stuff

deindividuation

loss of self-awareness/restraint in group settings

• masks, interned, anonymity

group polarization

group discussions strengthen existing opinions — can intensify extremism

• US political parties

group think

desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal

• group projects where the dominant student proposes a weak plan, rest agree w/out question to avoid conflict. Even when they don’t think the idea is a good one

prevent groupthink?

encourage diverse opinions, expert critique, assign roles to detect flaws

prejudice

unjustified negative attitude toward a group

• gender bias in STEM

discrimination

negative behavior toward a group

• refusing service at a restaurant because of race/ethnicity

three components of prejudice

• beliefs (stereotypes)

• emotions (hostility/fear)

• predisposition to act (discrimination)

just-world phenomenon

belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

in-group bias

favoring one’s own group over others

what is scapegoat theory & how does it explain prejudice

prejudice provides an outlet for anger — blaming others when things go wrong (especially under frustration)

Implicit Association Test (IAC) measure?

measures automatic/unconscious associations between concepts

unconscious patronization

stereotypes lead to different standards for evaluation (e.g. inflating praise/giving less criticism)

define altruism

unselfish concern for others’’ well-being

bystander effect? how does it relate to diffusion of responsibility

individuals are less likely to help when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility

Robbers Cave Study — Sherif: how can intergroup conflict be reduced?

through superordinate goals? Ones that require groups/individuals w/ opposing interest to work together to achieve a common outcome. Fosteres cooperation and trust

what are superordinate goals?

sharing goals requiring cooperation/overriding group differences

personality

unique/relatively stable ways in which people think, feel, and behave

character

value judgments about a person’s moral/ethical behavior

temperament

enduring characteristics present from birth, influenced by biology and early environment

Freud’s Three Parts of the mind

• conscious

• preconscious

• unconscious

conscious

current awareness

preconscious

memories, thoughts easily brought to awareness

unconscious

thoughts, desires, and conflicts beyond awareness

psychosexual stages

childhood stages of development

• oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

oral

(0-18 months) focus on mouth; conflict = weaning

anal

(18-36 months) focus on anus; conflict = toilet training

• fixations: anal expulsive (messy) vs. anal retentive (neat)

phallic

(3-6 years): focus on genitals; Oedipus/Electra complex

latency

(6-puberty): repressed sexuality; focus on social development…intelligence more? Schooling??

genital

puberty — future: sexual urges reawaken w/ appropriate targets

fixation

unresolved conflict in a stage results in personality traits linked to that stage

defense mechanisms

unconscious distortions to reduce anxiety (repression, denial, projection)

carl jung

Neo-Freudian: added the collective unconscious & archetypes (anima, animus, persona)

alfred adler

neo-freudian

• proposed inferiority complex (feelings of inferiority are the driving force behind personality)

• & importance of birth order

karen horney

neo-freudian

• basic anxiety results from being born into a hostile world; poor upbringing leads to neurotic personalities

erik erikson

emphasized psychosocial stages across the lifespan on social relationships

How did behaviorists like skinner explain personality?

personality is a set of learned responses or habits — try to copy habits over and over again to try to be “that version” of themselves

• too restrictive in their viewpoints

reciprocal determinism (Bandura!)

behavior, environment, and personal/cognitive factors influence each other

• traits have multiple things interacting together to form personality

self-efficacy

belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situation

Maslow’s Self-Actualization

striving to fulfill one’s innate potential

Real self vs. Ideal self

RS: one’s perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilities

IS: one’s perception to whom one should be or would like to be

match = well adjusted; mismatched = anxiety?

unconditional positive regard

acceptance without conditions

fully functioning person

someone who is in touch w/ and trusting of their deepest, innermost urges and feelings

trait theory

attempts to describe the characteristics that make up human personality in order to predict future behavior

surface traits

traits that are easily seen by others in the outward actions of a person

source traits

more basic traits that underlie the surface traits & form core of personality (introversion, extroversion, etc.)

the big 5 personality traits

openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

openness

willingness to try new things & open to new experiences

• exotic foods while traveling

conscientiousness

carefulness, organization, thoughtfulness

• keeping a detailed planner & meeting deadlines

extroversion

need to be w/ other people

• going to social events regularly

agreeableness

emotional style ranging from friendly & likable to unpleasant

• helping a friend move w/out being asked

neuroticism

degree of emotional stability or instability

• getting extremely upset over minor inconveniences

trait-situation interaction

idea that the particular circumstances of any given situation can influence how a trait is expressed

twin studies suggest…w/ genetics —

genetics play a significant role in personality. Identical twins show higher similarity in personality traits than fraternal twins

heritability

proportion of trait variation within a population that can be attributed to genetic factors

personality inventory

paper and pencil/computerized test w/ standardized questions to assess personality traits

• NEO-PI, MBTI, MMPI-2

halo effect

tendency for an interviewer’s impression of a person’s positive traits to influence their overall evaluation

projective test

type of personality assessment presenting ambiguous stimuli & asking for a response to uncover unconscious desires or conflicts

• Rorschach inkblot test

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

criticisms of projective tests

• subjective

• results are influenced by biases & personal experiences

• lack reliability & validity, because they don’t have standardized grading scales

5 possible criteria for abnormal behavior

1. behavior is statistically rare

2. behavior deviates from societal norms

3. behavior depends on situational context

4. behavior causes subjective discomfort

5. behavior leads to inability to function in society

biopsychosocial perspective

term for combined biological psychological, and social influences

biological model of abnormality

disorder caused by biological changes (chemical, structural, genetic)

psychodynamic model of abnormality

disorder results from repressed thoughts, memories, and concerns in the unconscious mind

behavioral model of abnormality

disordered behavior is learned, just like normal behavior

cognitive model of abnormality

maladaptive functioning results from illogical thinking patterns

sociocultural model of abnormality

behavior shaped by family, social groups, and culture; includes concept of cultural relativity

biopsychosocial perspective

abnormal behavior results from interacting biological, psychological, social, and cultural influences

DSM-5

a manual used to describe and diagnose mental disorders (20 categories, 250 disorders).

Criticisms of DSM-5

• pathologizes everyday life (TOO BROAD)

• subjective diagnostic labels

• biasing power labels

comorbidity

presence of two or more disorders in one person

etiology

cause of a disorder

risk factors

experiences or characteristics increasing disorder likelihood

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

persistent, uncontrollable, disruptive anxiety

panic disorder vs. general anxiety

panic disorder involves sudden, intense panic attacks, while GAD involves constant worry without specific triggers

phobia

an irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or activity

obsessions

unwanted repetitive thoughts

compulsions

repetitive actions performed to reduce anxiety

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms

haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, avoidance, numbness, insomnia

major depressive disorder symptoms

hoplessness, lethargy, impaired functioning, lasting several weeks/months

bipolar disorder symptoms

extreme mood swings between depression & mania

mania

a period of overexcited unrealistically optimistic state