geography exam 1

graphien

“to write”

geo

“earth”

geography studies…

relationship among natural systems, geographic areas, society, and their interdependence

open system

receives input and output

closed system

shut off from the surrounding environment

positive feedback

amplifies change (destabilizes)

negative feedback

inhibits change (stabilizes)

steady-state equilibrium

rates of inputs and outputs are equal and amounts of energy and matter are stable

dynamic equilibrium

fluctuations around equilibrium with a trend

metastable equilibrium

new equilibrium reached after passing a threshold

geoid

irregular shape of the earth’s surface

great circle

any circle that cuts the earth in half

latitude/parallel

line connecting same latitude angles

longitude/meridian

line connecting same longitude angles

prime meridian

meridian of 0 degrees longitude

international date line

180 degree meridian marks where each day begins

day sweeps westward as earth turns eastward

map

generalized view of an area as seen from above and reduced in size

scale

ratio of map units to ground units

map projections

transforms earth into flat map

equivalence projection

equal area

conformality projection

true shape

azimuthal

preserves direction

equidistant

preserves distance

minimum error

compromises all properties (general projection)

active remote sensing

transmits energy to allow an image to be formed

passive remote sensing

collects energy reflected or emitted from a surface

perihelion

jan 3 earth closest to the sun on its orbit

aphelion

july 4 earth farthest to the sun on its orbit

plane of the ecliptic

plane of earth’s orbit

solar winds

clouds of electrically charged particles

coronal mass ejections

contribute to flow of solar winds and causes auroras

sunspots

surface disturbances caused by magnetic storms

activity cycle of 11 years

solar max

many sunspots

solar min

few sunspots

sun emits…

shortwave energy

earth emits…

longwave energy

gamma rays, xrays, ultraviolet, visible light

shortwave energy

thermal IR, IR, microwave, radio

longwave energy

solar constant

avg insolation at avg distance from the sun

subsolar point

insolation hits perpendicular to the surface

declination

latitude where the sun is directly overhead (usually at noon)

revolution

earth’s full orbit around the sun (year)

rotation

earth turning on its axis (day)

tilt

axis is tilted about 23.5 degrees from the plane of the ecliptic

!! axial parallelism

axis maintains alignment during orbit around the sun

sphericity

oblate spheroidal shape lit by sun’s parallel rays

sun’s altitude

angle above horizon

atmospheric composition

heterosphere and homosphere

heterosphere

outer atmosphere (>80 km) and Layers of gases sorted by gravity

homosphere

inner atmosphere (<80 km) and gases are evenly blended

atmospheric temperature

Thermosphere, Mesosphere, Stratosphere, and Trophosphere

thermosphere

"Heat sphere"
Roughly the same as heterosphere
Auroras are seen here

mesosphere

middle layer in terms of temperature

stratosphere

location of the ozone layer

troposphere

layer of Earth's amosphere closest to Earth's surface (where weather takes place and where most pollution occurs)

Atmospheric Function

Ionosphere and Ozonosphere

Ionosphere

Absorbs gamma rays, X-rays,
and some UV rays

Ozonosphere

Part of the stratosphere
Ozone (O3) absorbs UV energy and converts it to heat energy

ozone hole

forms over the south pole

largest over antartica

chlorofluorocarbons

contain chlorine, fluorine, and carbon

exposure to UV radiation releases free chlorine (Cl) to interact with other gases

  temperature inversion

Occurs when a layer of warm air gets above a layer of cold air (warm air is between layers of cold air) 

Clean Air Act

federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level

photochemical smog

mixture of pollutants that result from interaction of sun and car exhaust 

Particulates/Aerosols 

• fine particles, such as haze, smoke, dust 

• Black carbon "soot"  

Industrial smog

produced from coal-burning industry and electrical generation 

Natural Sources Pollutants

Volcanos, Forest Fires, All Plants, Soil, and Ocean

Anthropogenic Sources Pollutants

Carbon monoxide
Photochemical smog
Industrial smog and sulfur oxides
Particulates

Insolation input 

All radiation received at Earth's surface – direct and indirect 

transmission

uninterrupted passage of shortwave and longwave energy thru water or atmosphere

Scattering

changing direction of light's movement

diffuse radiation

energy that reaches earth after scattering

refraction

change in speed and direction of light 

• When insolation passes from air into water 

reflection

a portion of arriving solar energy bounces directly back into space

albedo

the reflective quality of a surface

absorption

assimilation of radiation by molecules of matter converting radiation from one form to the other

radiation

transfer of heat in electromagnetic waves 

conduction

molecule-to-molecule

convection

gas and liquids

advection

Greenhouse effect

greenhouse gas molecules absorb heat warming the surface and lower atmosphere

Cloud-albedo forcing

Cloud-greenhouse forcing

cirrus clouds traps longwave radiation from Earth (reflect only 50% of coming insolation)

Net radiation (NET R)

the sum of all radiation gains and losses (varies with daylength, clouds, and latitude)

Fahrenheit (Daniel G. Fahrenheit)

experimental water based scale

Celsius (Anders Celsius)

intuitive and water based 

• Melt 0°C, boil 100°C 

Kelvin (Lord Kelvin)

concept of absolute zero 

• Melt 273 K, boil 373 K 

As altitude increases...

temperature and air density decreases

Cloud cover 

50% of earth is covered by clouds 

Transparency

Ability of light to be transmitted through a
substance

Specific Heat

Capacity of a substance to hold heat & how temp. changes as a result of the addition of energy

Movement

Internal motion within a substance

Ocean Currents

Cool ocean currents -
cools air temps on land

Warm ocean currents -
warms air temps on land

Urban Heat Island

a city or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities.

Marine effect

influence of the ocean on climate 

• Moderated by the ocean 

• Flat curve 

Contiental effect

range between max and min temps on areas close to the coast and inland 

• It rises up higher and drops lower 

• Ex: central asia 

Isobar

lines of constant pressure values on a map

How is wind measured?

Anemometer (speed)
Wind vane (direction)

Coriolis Force

deflective force due to rotation of our Earth

Frictional Force

Drag on the winds

Gravitational Force

Uniform pressure on the atmosphere; Compresses the atmosphere (increases density at surface)