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Neuroscience

The scientific study of the nervous system.

Neurons

Specialized cells in the brain that receive and transmit electrochemical signals.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to modify, change, and adapt both structure and function throughout life and in response to experience.

Biopsychology

The scientific study of the biology of behavior.

Neuroanatomy

The study of the structure of the nervous system.

Neurochemistry

The study of the chemical bases of neural activity.

Neuroendocrinology

The study of interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system.

Neuropathology

The study of nervous system disorders.

Neuropharmacology

The study of the effects of drugs on neural activity.

Neurophysiology

The study of the functions and activities of the nervous system.

Phrenology

A process that involves observing and/or feeling the skull to determine an individual's psychological attributes.

Trepanation

A procedure of drilling holes in the skull, practiced as early as 7,000 years ago.

Hippocrates

An ancient Greek physician who believed that the brain was the organ of sensation and intelligence.

Galen

A Greek physician who made careful dissections of animals and believed that the ventricles played an important role in transmitting messages to and from the brain.

Rene Descartes

A French philosopher who supported Galen's ideas about the ventricles and fluid transmission in the nervous system.1. Mind-body dualism:The philosophical concept proposed by René Descartes that suggests the mind and body are separate entities.

Hydraulic transmission

A concept proposed by René Descartes that suggests the transmission of signals in the nervous system is similar to the flow of fluids in a hydraulic system.

Light microscope

An invention by Anton van Leeuwenhoek that uses light to magnify and observe small objects or organisms.

Electricity as a means of transmitting messages in the nervous system

The discovery made by Galvani and du Bois-Reymond that electrical signals are involved in transmitting messages within the nervous system.

Localization of function in the nervous system

The concept demonstrated by Gall, Spurzheim, Broca, Fritsch, and Hitzig that specific functions are localized in different areas of the nervous system.

Phrenology

A theory proposed by Gall and Spurzheim that suggests the shape and size of the skull can reveal a person's personality traits and mental abilities.

Localization of speech production

The discovery made by Paul Broca that a specific area of the brain, now known as Broca's area, is responsible for speech production.

Synapse

The term coined by Charles Sherrington to describe the junction between two neurons where chemical signaling occurs.

Neurons communicate through chemical transmission

The discovery made by Otto Loewi that neurons communicate with each other through the release and reception of chemicals at the synapse.

Nervous system composed of separate cells

The declaration made by Ramón y Cajal that the nervous system is made up of individual cells called neurons.

Brain functions as a hierarchy

The explanation given by John Hughlings Jackson that brain functions are organized in a hierarchical manner, with higher levels of the brain responsible for more complex functions.

Biopsychology

A subdiscipline of neuroscience that focuses on the study of behavior and how it is influenced by biological factors.

Neuropathology

A subdiscipline of neuroscience that focuses on the study of brain disorders and diseases.

Human brains vs

The main difference being that human brains tend to be bigger and have more cortex, making them more intricate and complex.

Sulci and Gyri

The wrinkles in the brain that increase its surface area and optimize brain matter fitting into the skull.

Human and Non-Human Subjects

The use of both humans and animals in biopsychological research, with humans having more complex brain structures.

Quasi-experimental studies

Research studies that do not involve random assignment of participants to conditions, but rather select subjects who are already living under specific conditions.

Case Studies

An intensive study of a person, group, or unit aimed at generalizing over several units.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured or observed to assess the effects of the independent variable.

Confounded Variables (CV)

Variables that may influence the dependent variable and make it difficult to determine the true cause-effect relationship.

Within-subjects design

An experimental design where each subject is exposed to each condition of the experiment.

Causal interpretations of experimental results

Difficulties arise when confounded variables make it challenging to establish a clear cause-effect relationship.

Translational research

Research that aims to apply pure research findings to solve specific human problems.

Applied research

Research that is intended to bring direct benefit to humankind.

Corpus callosum

A neural pathway consisting of myelinated nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between the two sides.1. Biopsychology:The study of the biological basis of behavior and mental processes.

Clinical psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders.

Physiological psychology

The division of biopsychology that studies the neural mechanisms of behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of laboratory animals in controlled experiments.

Applied psychopharmacology

The division of biopsychology that focuses on the application of drugs and medications to treat mental disorders and study their effects on behavior.

Psychopharmacology

The subdivision of biopsychology that studies the effects of drugs on behavior and mental processes.

Neuropsychology

The subdiscipline of biopsychology that focuses on the assessment and study of cognitive and behavioral deficits associated with brain damage or dysfunction.

Cerebral cortex

The outermost layer of the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for higher cognitive functions.

Psychophysiology

The subdiscipline of biopsychology that measures and studies the relationship between physiological processes and psychological experiences.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A measure of brain activity that records electrical signals from the scalp.

Cognitive neuroscience

The study of the neural basis of cognition, including higher intellectual processes such as thought, memory, and attention.

Converging operations

The approach of using different research methods and perspectives to address a single problem, with each approach compensating for the weaknesses of the others.

Morgan's canon

The principle that precedence should be given to the simplest interpretation of a behavior when multiple interpretations are possible.

Prefrontal cortex

The part of the brain located at the front of the frontal lobes, involved in higher cognitive functions and decision-making.

Between subjects design

An experimental design that involves testing different groups of subjects under each condition of the experiment.

Monism

The perspective that the mind is the result of activity in the brain, which can be studied scientifically.

Evolution

The process of change in species over time, driven by natural selection and genetic variation.

Charles Darwin

A British naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection.

Fossil records

The preserved remains or traces of organisms from the past, used as evidence for evolution.

Selective breeding

The process of intentionally breeding plants or animals with desirable traits to produce offspring with those traits.

Hominid

A member of the family Hominidae, which includes humans and their closest relatives.1. Dualism:The belief that the mind and body operate in two different ways.

Monism

The perspective that the mind is the result of activity in the brain, which can be studied scientifically.

Medelian Genetics

The study of inheritance in pea plants, including dichotomous traits, true breeding lines, dominant traits, and recessive traits.

Alleles

Two genes that control the same trait.

Epigenetics

The study of how behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way genes work.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The division of the nervous system located within the skull and spine, comprising the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The division of the nervous system located outside the skull and spine, comprising the spinal cord and nerves across the body.

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

The part of the PNS that interacts with the external environment, composed of afferent nerves and efferent nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The part of the PNS that regulates the body's internal environment, composed of sympathetic nerves and parasympathetic nerves.1. Parasympathetic input:Input from the parasympathetic nervous system, which controls relaxation and rest.

Sympathetic changes

Changes in the body that indicate psychological arousal.

Parasympathetic changes

Changes in the body that indicate psychological relaxation.

Spinal nerves

Nerves that exit between the bones of the vertebral column.

Disks

Cushions between the bones of the vertebral column.

Pinched nerve

Pressure on the spinal nerves due to degenerated disks, causing pain.

Olfactory nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for the sense of smell.

Optic nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for vision.

Oculomotor nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for most eye movements.

Trochlear nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for moving the eyes to look at the nose.

Trigeminal nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for face sensation and mastication.

Abducens nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for abducting the eye.

Vestibulocochlear nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for hearing and balance.

Glossopharyngeal nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for taste and the gag reflex.

Accessory nerve

Cranial nerve responsible for shoulder shrugging.

Meninges

Protective membranes of the brain.

Dura Mater

The outer layer of the brain.

Arachnoid Membrane

Spider-web-like membrane.

Subarachnoid Space

Space containing blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid.

Pia mater

The innermost layer of the brain.

Blood-brain Barrier

Mechanism that prevents the passage of toxic substances from the blood into the brain.

Choroid plexuses

Networks of capillaries that produce cerebrospinal fluid.

Ventricles

Four large internal chambers of the brain.

Cerebral aqueduct

Connects the third and fourth ventricles.

Neurons

Cells specialized for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals.

Glial cells

Cells of the nervous system that support and protect neurons.1. Unipolar neuron:A neuron with a single elongated process and the cell body located off to the side.

Bipolar neuron

A neuron with two processes separated by the cell body.

Interneurons

Neurons that have short axons or no axon at all, and their function is to integrate neural activity within a single brain structure.

Glial cells

Non-neuronal cells located within the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system that provide physical and metabolic support to neurons, including insulation and communication.

Superior

Above; toward the head.

Inferior

Below; toward the feet.

Dorsal

Toward the top of the brain or the back of the spinal cord.

Rostral

Toward the front of the brain or the top of the spinal cord.

Caudal

Toward the back of the brain or the bottom of the spinal cord.