AP Bio Unit One: Chemistry of Life

4 Major Macromolecules

4 Major Macromolecules

Proteins - enzymes, workers, structure

Nucleic Acids - genetic material - codes for protein - one gene→ one polypeptide

Lipids

Carbohydrates - sugar - energy, structure,

Carbohydrates

Composition?

Monomer?,

Polymer?

Examples?

Bonds Between Poly>

Composed of C,H,O in 1:2:1 ratio

Monosaccharides Sugars: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

Disaccharide: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

Polysaccharide:

Cellulose (plant cell walls, rigid), Chintin (fungi cell walls and exoskeletons)

Starch: Stored glucose In plants (amylose), Glycogen is stored glucose in animals

Bond: glycosidic linkage

What makes cellulose indigestible to us, or what makes it different than other stuff

cellulose contains both alpha and beta glucose

we cant break the beta linkages

only way we can break it down is with bacteria with enzymes in our gut (muturalistic relationship)

What reaction binds monomers to polymers like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and DNA

What Takes them Apart?

What specific enzyme breaks down DNA?

Dehydration brings together

Hydrolysis Breaks

nucleases break down DNA

Proteins

composed of?

monomer?

Whats the bond?

CHONS - has sulfur (esential to the experiment for genetic material) - hershey chase

Monomer: Amino acids - composed of ammine group NH₂ , Carboxl, R Group (the difference)

peptide bond between the carboxyl and ammine (covalent)

Terminus - N (ammine), C (Carboxl)

Levels of Protein Structure

How does it fold?

1. Primary Structure: the long string, peptide bonds,

2. Secondary: Alpba helix or beta pleated, hydrogen bonds - parallel or anti parrlele etc

3. Tertirary- Covalent bonds, hydrogen, van der walls, hydrophobic interactions, ionic, disulfide bridges or (any bonds), between R groups.

   1. 3-d

   2. Finalized if only one peptide

4. Quartinary - Multiple Peptides to one Protein, Any bonds again, R Group interactions between different peptides

Folding - based on R Group - if Polar, it will be exterior because can form hydrogen bonds, if hydrophobic (interior) and created hydrophobic interactions

Nucleic Acids

Composition

Monomer? What 3 things is it composed of?

Polymer? What 2 types? Difference?

What is special about the phosphate? what can it allow us to do?

What do the ends mean? 3 and 5

CHONP - has phosphate and nitrogen

Nucleotide - made up of phosphate, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base (the letter code)
DNA (T)- or RNA (U) - Deoxyribose (-H) - Ribose (OH)

Phosphate → negative charge → makes it good for electrophoresis

3 means hydroxide end, and 5 is phosphate end

Purines are double A,G

Pyrdimadine is CUT single

Very Basic - high pH

Nucleic Acid Structures and Bonds

DNA?

RNA?

similar?

Purines vs Prymadine

Bonds for them?

How are the bonds broken in crossing over

DNA is a double helix and anti-parallel. Uses hydrogen bonds to pair the base pairs

RNA is single-stranded

Phosphodiester Linkage keeps nucleotides together

Purines are double A,G

Pyrdimadine is CUT single

A-T 2 bonds,, C-G, 3 bonds

Double or Single Rule can be broken sometimes

The Endonucleases break (hydrolysis) the covalent bonds that link the nucleotides, breaking between the sugar and the phosphates

Hershey and Chase Experiment

They used radioactive Sulfur and Phosphorous to mark Proteins and DNA. They found that the genetic material transfered in transduction it Phosphrous (DNA)

Lipids

Composition

What makes them different than the other macromolecules?

Monomer?

Polymer Types?

Saturated vs Unsaturated Fatty Acids

CHO (P - in phospholipids)

They are non-polar

Fatty Acids Monomer, lots of polymers

Glycerol -

• Glycerol (3 Fatty Acids)

• Saturated means all single bonds → packed tightly - solid

• Unsaturated means at least one double bond → kink → wont pack completely - liquid

Phospholipids - e

• polar head and non polar tail

• Phosphate is polar

• 2 fatty acids is nonpolar tail

• Assembles to bi layer - membrane

Steroids -

• 4 rings

• Ligands - intracellular lipid receptors -

• Cholestrol is used for hormone synthesis and is used in plasma membranes to make it more rigid

What makes something polar or not

What is polar?

Lots of C ,H → non polar

Has a good amount of O, P, S - polar

Polar means sharing electrons unequally which causes slight charges - covalent bonds

The more electronegative will pull electrons

hydrogen bonds

Water Properties

Why is water polar?

How does the fact of it being polar change things

Polar →Oxygen partially negative because more electronegative and hydrogen becomes partially positive

• Cohesion - water attracted to other water with hydrogen bonds → surface tension, specific heat and etc

• Adhesion - water attraction to other polar substances → Water can climb up plant xylem (capillary action) because of less pressure (transpiration) and going up

• Universal Solvent - it can dissolve any that is polar (charged) like salts

Other Water Properties

Less Dense as a Solid - crystalized and uses more space - allows for ice to form on top and float

High specific heat - requires a lot of energy (joules) to increase the water

• this allows for body tempeature to be better regulated with evaporative cooling

• regulates temp in costal reigons

pH - high pH (low protrons), low pH (high protons)

• relevant in Mitocondria (prton pumps protons from the matrix (inside) to matrix to intromembrane space (out), chloroplast pumps protons from thje stroma (out) to the thylakoid (inside)

• Questions regarding pH could come up

High Heat of Evaporation

What are isomers, entanomers, cis trans

same chemical formula but have different structure

this is seen in glucose a or b

What do proteins do

do work

enzymes, defensive proteins (antibodies), stroage, transport, homronal, receptor, structural, contractile and motor

what does CO2 do to oceans

it can acidify it because it can turn into carbonic acid andless calcium carbonate

7 characteristics of life

order, interaction, energy, regulation, grwoth and develoipment, reproduction, evolution

Transpiration

respobsible for water moving out of the plant

this is because of cohesion and adheion → caplillary action

this is also because of the low water potential on top bc less pressure