AP Comparative Government and Politics - Key Concepts

Political culture

The set of beliefs and ideals that shape the willingness of citizens to accept their regime.

Civil Society

Voluntary associations that are independent of state control, crucial for connecting citizens and organizing common interests.

Political ideology

A collection of values and beliefs that dictate how political issues should be approached.

Political values

Fundamental principles outlining what citizens believe regarding government and society's roles.

Civil Rights

Protections granted by the government to ensure individual freedoms, such as the right to vote and fair trial.

Civil Liberties

Protections from government intrusion into individual freedoms, like freedom of speech and religion.

Cleavage

Internal divisions in society that affect social interactions and political stability.

Regime type

The form or system of government, such as authoritarian or democratic, that defines political participation.

Political participation

Involvement of citizens in political processes, including voting, lobbying, and protests.

Authoritarian regime

A government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms.

Democratic regime

A government that is characterized by free and fair elections and the protection of civil rights.

Roles of Participation

Types of political participation and methods of participation, again ranging from non-diverse to diverse.

China’s Civil Society

• Assembly protected on paper, but tightly controlled

• Independent groups = persecuted (ex: Wang Li, jailed 9 years)

• Religious freedom only for state-approved groups

Russia’s Civil Society

• Right to assembly guaranteed, but restricted since 2012

• NGOs w/ foreign funding = 'foreign agents'

• Navalny’s groups outlawed → opposition suppressed

• Religious groups (e.g., Jehovah’s Witnesses) targeted

Iran’s Civil Society

• Assemblies allowed if not against Islam

• NGOs tolerated until post-2009 protests → crackdown

• Baha’i faith persecuted, minority rights limited

Nigeria’s Civil Society

• Vibrant labor unions, #EndSARS movement

• Govt backlash: froze protestors’ bank accounts, violent repression

• Special Anti-Robbery Squads (SARS)

Mexico’s Civil Society

• 1985 earthquake → citizens organized relief → democratization

• Civil society active during crises (COVID-19)

UK’s Civil Society

• HQ for major NGOs (Oxfam, Amnesty, Save the Children)

  • Strong pluralism, not many restrictions

  • Civil society groups supported during COVID-19 crisis

Civil Society’s roles can be hindered by

1. Mandatory government registration

2. Government monitoring of associations/organizations and preventative measures

Authoritarian

the implication that a government imposes more rules/policies on the country

Libertarian

the implication that a government should not impose rules/policies on the country

Left Economic

the implication that society should organize its economic resources in a more collective society (Communism or Socialism)

Right Economic

the implication that society should organize its economic resources in a more individualistic way (Laissez faire)

Laissez faire

a policy or attitude of letting things take their own course, without interfering

Radical

Transform or replace (Usually on the left side)

Reactionary

strong conservative values to maintain (Usually on the right side)

Individualism

belief in individual civil liberties and freedom over government restrictions

Neoliberalism

belief in limited governmental intervention in the economy and society

Communism

belief in the abolition of private property with (near) state control of the economy

Socialism

belief in the reduction of income disparities and the nationalization of major private companies/properties

Fascism

belief in the rights of ethnic majority over that of ethnic minorities and the political opposition. Extreme ideology favors authoritarian rule

Populism

political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over that of the elites

UK’s political values and beliefs

political values and beliefs on the democratic process, individual rights, and constitutional monarchy

Russia’s political values and beliefs

political values and beliefs on centralization of power and authority

China’s political values and beliefs

political values and beliefs on collectivism and slate-led development

Nigeria’s political values and beliefs

political values and beliefs on ethnic diversity and historical colonial influence

Iran’s political values and beliefs

political values and beliefs on religious principles (Islamic)

Mexico’s political values and beliefs

political values and beliefs on democratic process and social welfare (ish…)

Welfare State

the system has many policies or benefits to ensure protections for people. (ex. social security, healthcare, unemployment benefits, etc.)

Radical’s attitude towards change

Seeks rapid, fundamental changes to society

Liberal’s attitude towards change

supports gradual, progressive change

Conservative’s attitude towards change

Prefers maintaining the status quo (what it is right now)

Reactionary’s attitude towards change

Desires a return to traditional systems

Formal political participations can enhance

• Legitimacy

• gather input

• act as a safety valve (let off steam - allow anger!)

• apply a check on policies

Authoritarian regimes more likely use citizen participation to:

• intimidate opposition or

• give an illusion of influence

• Less tolerance for critical viewpoints

(Political Participation) Democratic regimes:

hold elections to allow citizen control of the policy-making process

Formal political participation

includes voting in elections and on referendums, contacting government officials, joining political groups, working on a campaign, and donating money to a cause or candidate

Referendums

A form of a voting procedure where citizens vote directly to a political matter or a policy

Referendums in Russia

Constitutional Referendum in Russia in 2020 proposed amendments to the country's constitution. These amendments included changes such as allowing President Vladimir Putin to potentially remain in power until 2036 by resetting presidential term limits, giving more power to the Russian Parliament, and enshrining conservative social values in the constitution.

Referendums in UK

Brexit Referendum (2016): In 2016, the UK voted in a referendum to decide whether to remain in the European Union (EU) or leave. The "Leave" campaign won by a small margin, leading to the UK's eventual departure from the EU.

Referendums in Mexico

NAFTA Referendum (1993): Mexico held a referendum in 1993 to ask if citizens supported the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The majority voted in favor, influencing Mexico's trade policies and economic relationships.

Informal political participation

includes protests, civil disobedience, and political violence, including terrorism

Protests

a public demonstration against a policy or in response to an event, often targeting the government

Political Violence

Use of physical force by non-state actors for political ends (ex. Terrorism from groups such as IRA, Boko Haram, MEND, etc.)

Impact of political participation (Authoritarian and democratic regimes)

Both support similar forms of participation to influence policy making.

How to ensure Civil Liberties and Rights happen?

Transparency and open governance

Cleavages’ impact in course countries

1. Increasing radical/terrorist religious elements (all)

2. Separatist Movements (all but mexico)

3. Demand for autonomy (UK and Mexico)

Cleavages

act as the basis for political conflict.  They divide groups in society against one another because of conflicting political goals.

Coinciding Cleavages (Centrifugal)

deeply divide society and threaten its unity.  The divisions appear to benefit one group more than another.

Cross-cutting Cleavages (Centripetal)

cleavages do not align, not as stark and divisive, can lead to compromise

Social Cleavages

divisions based on ethnicity, race, religion, class, or territory

Political Cleavages

divisions based on different ideas about the role of government and goals in policymaking

Federalism

enshrining powers and rights in constitutions for geographical subunits

Government’s response to cleavages

1. Government responses include:

   1. Brute repression

   2. Recognition of ethnic/religious minorities

   3. Creation of autonomous regions

   4. Representation of minorities in government institutions