psychodynamic approach

key words

Defence mechanisms: unconscious strategies that protect our conscious mind from anxiety. Defence mechanisms involve a distortion of reality in some way, so that we are better able to cope with a situation.

Psychoanalysis: a term used to describe the personality theory and therapy associated with Freud.

Psychodynamic: refers to any theory that emphasises change and development in the individual, particularly those theories where ‘drive’ is a central concept in development. The best known psychodynamic theory is Freud's psychoanalysis.

Unconscious: that part of the human mind that contains repressed ideas and memories, as well as primitive desires and impulses that have never been allowed to enter the conscious mind. 

Freuds theory of psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud believed that behaviour was determined more by psychological factors than biological factors or environmental reinforcement. He assumed that people are born with basic instincts and needs and that behaviour is in large part controlled by the unconscious mind.

role of the unconscious

Freud believed in the existence of a part of the mind that was inaccessible to conscious thought. He referred to this as the unconscious mind. He used the metaphor of an iceberg to describe the mind, the tip of the iceberg (representing the conscious mind) being visible, but the much larger part (representing the unconscious) being hidden under water. Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue, in creativity and in neurotic symptoms. The unconscious, he believed, extended its influence into everyday part of our waking and sleeping lives. Freud believed the mind actively prevents traumatic memories from the unconscious from reaching conscious awareness. These memories might cause anxiety; therefore the mind used defence mechanisms to prevent the person becoming aware of them.

structure of personality - the id

 the id operates solely in the unconscious. It contains the libido, the biological energy created by the reproductive instincts. The id operates according to the pleasure principle, i.e. it demands immediate gratification regardless of circumstances. For example, if a person is hungry, the id demands that they eat there and then.

frequently in conflict with one another

the ego

the ego mediates between the impulsive demand of the id and the reality of the external word (the reality principle). For example, it may delay gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands. It must also compromise between the impulsive demands of the id and the moralistic demand of the superego.

the superego

this is divided into the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience is the internalisation of societal rules. It determines which behaviours are permissible and causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken. The ego-ideal is what a person strives towards, and is most probably determined by parental standards of good behaviour. 

defence mechanisms

If an individual is faced with a situation that they are unable to deal with rationally, their defence mechanisms may be triggered. These tend to operate unconsciously and work by distorting reality so that anxiety is reduced. By using a defence mechanism the individual stops themselves becoming aware of any unpleasant thoughts and feelings associated with the traumatic situation.

examples of defence mechanisms - repression

refers to the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses. Rather than staying quietly in the unconscious, these repressed thoughts and impulses continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour. For example, a child who is abused by a parent may have no recollection of these events, but has trouble forming relationships.

denial

 is the refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that might be associated with that event. The person acts as if the traumatic event had not happened, something that those around them find to be quite bizarre. For example, an alcoholic will often deny they have a drinking problem even after being arrested several times for being drunk and disorderly.

displacement

 involves the redirecting of thoughts or feelings (usually hostile) in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the presence of the person they should be directed towards. Instead, they may ‘take it out’ on a helpless victim or object. This gives their hostile feelings a route for expression, even though they are misapplied to an innocent person or object.

psychosexual stages

Freud believed that personality develops through a sequence of five stages. These are referred to as psychosexual stages to emphasise that the most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido). Freud believed that the individual experiences tension due to the build up of this sexual energy that is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body.

oral stage 0-2 years

The mouth is the focal point of sensation and is the way in which the child expresses early sexual energy (e.g. through sucking and biting).

anal 2-3 years

The beginnings of ego development, as the child becomes aware of the demands of reality and the need to conform to the demands of others. The major issue at this stage is toilet training as the child learns to control the expulsion of bodily waste.

phallic stage 3-6 years

Sexual energy is now focused on the genitals. The major conflict of this stage is the Oedipus complex in which the male child unconsciously wishes to possess their mother and get rid of their father. As a result of this desire, boys experience castration anxiety (punishment from the father), and in an attempt to resolve this problem, the child identifies with their father.

latent stage 6-12 years

The child develops their mastery of the word around them. During this stage, the conflicts and issues of the previous stages are repressed with the consequences that children are unable to remember much of their early years.

genital stage 12+ years

The culmination of psychosexual development and the fixing of sexual energy in the genitals. This eventually directs us towards sexual intercourse and the beginnings of adult life.

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The development of psychoanalysis as an explanation of human behaviour represented a dramatic shift in psychological thinking. It suggested new methodological procedures for gathering evidence (case studies) and the development of the approach was based on observations of behaviour rather than relying on introspection. From these observations, Freud and his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological, ratchet than biological, treatment for disorders such as depression and anxiety. This approach has led to successful treatments; for example, de Maat et al’s 2009 large-scale review of psychotherapy studies concluded that psychoanalysis produced significant improvements in symptoms that were maintained in the years after treatment.

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Scientific support for the psychoanalytic approach

Critics of psychoanalysis often claim there is no scientific evidence for psychoanalysis and that its claims are not testable or falsifiable. However, many of the claims of psychoanalysis have been tested and many have been confirmed using scientific methodology. Fisher and Greenberg (1996) summarised 2,500 of these studies, concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis ‘compare well with studies relevant to any other major area of psychology’. Fisher and Greenberg’s support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour and for the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement adds scientific credibility to psychoanalytic explanations of human behaviour.

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Psychoanalysis is the gender-based approach

Freud's view of women and female sexuality were less well developed than his views on male sexuality. Despite the fact that his theories were focused on sexual development, Freud seemed content to remain ignorant of female sexuality and how it may differ from male sexuality. This led psychoanalysts such as Karen Horney, who broke away from Freudian theory, to criticise his work, particularly his views on women and their development. Dismissing women and their sexuality in such a way is problematic, not only because Freud treated many female patients, but also because his theories are still so influential today.

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Psychoanalysis is a culture-biased approach

Sue and sue (2008) argue that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non-western cultures. Psychoanalysts believe that mental disorders are the result of traumatic memories being ‘locked’ in the unconscious, and that freeing them through therapy gives the individual the chance to deal with them in the supportive therapeutic environment. However, they claim that many cultural groups do not value insight in the same way that western cultures do. In China, for example, a person who is depressed or anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being willing to discuss them openly. This contrasts with the western belief that open discussion and insight are always helpful in therapy.