AP Psychology Unit 0 - Science Practices Study Guide

Vocabulary flashcards covering AP Psychology Unit 0 concepts, including cognitive biases, research methods, experimental design, research ethics, and data interpretation.

Cognitive Biases

Errors in thinking that affect decisions and judgments.

Confirmation Bias

Looking at information in a way that supports existing beliefs, even when it means ignoring contradictory information.

Hindsight Bias

Also known as the 'I-knew-it-all-along' phenomenon, this bias occurs when people believe they predicted an outcome after it has already happened.

Overconfidence Bias

Having excessive confidence in the accuracy of one's assumptions, beliefs, or predictions, which can lead one to overlook and underestimate the need to study something that needs to be investigated.

Participant Bias

Also known as the Hawthorne Effect, this occurs when participants in a study behave differently simply because they know they are being observed.

Experimental Methods

Research methods that involve manipulating one or more independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable, allowing for cause-and-effect conclusions.

Non-Experimental Methods

Research methods that do not involve manipulating variables; researchers observe and measure variables as they naturally occur, meaning causality cannot be established.

Correlation

A method that measures the relationship between two variables without manipulating them. Correlation does not imply causation.

Directionality Problem

A problem in correlational research where it is unclear which variable influences the other.

Third Variable

Another variable that may affect both variables being studied, creating a false impression of a relationship between the two.

Case Study

An in-depth study of an individual, group, or event, often used for rare or unique cases.

Survey Technique

A method for collecting data from a large number of people using structured questionnaires or interviews.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the demographics of the population.

Random Sampling

A sampling technique where every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sampling

A non-random sampling method where participants are selected based on their easy accessibility.

Sampling Bias

A bias that occurs when a sample does not accurately reflect the population.

Social Desirability Bias

Occurs when people answer questions in a way that makes them look good rather than being truthful, concealing their true feelings or behaviors.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to draw a general conclusion and improve reliability and generalizability.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated in a study.

Experiment

Studies manipulating variables in controlled conditions to determine cause and effect.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor manipulated by the experimenter to observe its effect.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured; it is the outcome influenced by the independent variable.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiability

The ability for a hypothesis or theory to be proven wrong, which is a key aspect of scientific testing.

Replication

Repeating a research study with the same methods to assess its reliability (yields consistent results) and validity (accuracy of findings).

Control Group

The group that does not receive the experimental treatment and serves as a comparison.

Random Assignment

Procedure where participants are randomly placed into either the experimental or control group, ensuring each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group.

Confounding Variable

An external variable that can affect the results if not controlled, leading to false conclusions about the relationship between the IV and DV.

Placebo

A fake substance or treatment given to control group participants to make them think they are receiving the treatment.

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon where a person experiences a change in their symptoms simply because they believe they are receiving a treatment, even though the treatment is inactive or fake.

Single-Blind Procedure

A procedure where participants are unaware of whether they are receiving the actual treatment or a placebo.

Double-Blind Procedure

A procedure where both participants and researchers do not know which group participants are in, reducing experimenter bias.

Hawthorne Effect

A phenomenon where participants alter their behavior because they are aware they are being observed or studied.

Theory

An explanation of a phenomenon based on the results of testing it.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure they follow ethical guidelines.

Informed Consent

The requirement that participants must be fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in the study before agreeing to participate.

Informed Assent

Agreement to participate provided by individuals who cannot legally give consent (such as children), while someone responsible for them provides informed consent on their behalf.

Confidentiality

Protecting participants' private information from disclosure.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the true nature of the study after it concludes, especially if deception was used.

Research Confederates

Individuals who act as participants but are part of the research team to control certain variables or simulate behavior.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that summarize and organize data, providing an overview of patterns and tendencies in a dataset.

Mean

The average score in a dataset, calculated as the sum of all scores divided by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a dataset when the scores are arranged in ascending or descending order.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a dataset.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how much individual scores differ from the mean of a dataset, where a higher standard deviation indicates greater variability.

Outliers

Data points that are significantly different from the rest of the dataset, which can skew the mean and standard deviation.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two distinct peaks or modes.

Skewness

The degree to which a distribution is asymmetrical, indicating whether most scores are concentrated on one side of the mean.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a dataset that a particular score is greater than.

Inferential Statistics

Statistics that allow researchers to make generalizations or predictions about a population based on data from a sample.

Statistical Significance

Evidence that the results of a study are likely real and due to what is studied, not due to random chance, usually determined by a p-value less than $0.05$.

Effect Size

A measure of the practical significance of research results, showing how large or impactful the effect is in the real world.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure ranging from $-1$ to $+1$ that shows the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Generalizability

The extent to which the findings from a study can be applied to or represent the larger population.

Reliability

The consistency of a research study or measuring test, demonstrated if the same results can be consistently reproduced under the same conditions.

Validity

The extent to which a test or research study measures what it claims to measure.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward the average when measured again.