Biol 2401 Final Exam Review

Anatomy

Study of the structure of the body parts and how these parts are related to each other

Physiology

Study of the function of body parts, how they work

Principle of Complementarity

Function will always be reflected in structure (what a structure is capable of doing depends on its form)Ex: Muscles can contract because they have contractile units

Homeostasis

Ability to maintain stable, favorable internal conditions even though there are changes in the external environment.

Stimulas

produces change in variable

Receptor

detects change

Input

Information sent along afferent pathway to control center

Output

Information sent along efferent pathway to effector

Response

feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level

Negative Feedback

brings condition back to normal level

Positive Feedback

takes condition further from normal

Superior (cranial)

Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above Ex: The head is superior to the abdomin

Inferior (caudal)

Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below Ex: The navel is inferior to the chin

Ventral (anterior)

Toward or at the front of the body; in front of Ex: The breastbone is anterior to the spine

Dorsal (posterior)

Toward or at the back of the body; behind Ex: the heart is posterior to the breastbone.

Medial

Toward or at the mid-line of the body; on the inner side of. Ex: the heart is medial to the arm.

Lateral

Away from the mid-line of the body; on the outer side of. Ex: the arms are lateral to the chest.

Intermediate

Between a more medial and a more lateral structure. Ex: the collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder

Proximal

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. Ex: the elbow is proximal to the wrist.

Distal

Farther from the origin of a body point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. Ex: the knee is distal to the thigh.

Superficial (external)

toward or at the body surface. Ex: the skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles.

Deep (internal)

away from the body surface; more internal.Ex: the lungs are deep to the skin.

Sagittal Plane

divides body into Left/Right

Frontal (coronal) Plane

Divides body into Anterior/Posterior

Transverse Plane

Divides body into Superior/Inferior

Acid

Substance that releases or "donates" H+

Bases

Substances that take up or "accept" H+

pH scale

pH scale measures the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]Range: 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic)

Maintaining blood pH

Involves the respiratory and urinary systems

blood buffers

-binds to H+ ions if solution is too acidic

-releases H+ ions if solution is too basic

Organic Compounds

Contain carbon-hydrogen bonds Ie:

-Proteins

-Carbohydrates

-Lipids

-Nucleic Acids

Passive transport

no energy required; substances moved with concentration gradient (from more concentrated to less concentrated areas)

Simple diffusion

no transporter

Facilitated diffusion

uses membrane transporter

Osmosis

diffusion of water

Active transport

ATP required; substances moved against concentration gradient (from less concentrated to more concentrated)

Mitochondria

site of ATP synthesis

Rough ER

site of protein synthesis

Smooth ER

site of lipid synthesis

Golgi apparatus

site of protein packaging for secretion

Lysosome

contains digestive enzymes

Nucleus

contains DNA

Mitosis

results in 2 cells genetically identical to the original cell. It is used for growth, repair, replacement of old cells.

Epithelium

Tightly packed cells, Polarity apical - free surface (no tissue attached)basal-attached to underlying basement membrane

basement membrane

connective tissue that anchors and supports the epithelium

Muscle

Highly cellular ,Highly vascular with elongated, contractile cells

Classification:Smooth,Skeletal,Cardiac

Connective

Common embryonic origin

Vascularization varies widely

Matrix: contains ground substance and fibers

Nervous

Highly cellular, Contains neurons that conduct electrical impulses, Contains supportive cells (glial cells)

Functions of Integumentary System

Protection: chemical and physical barrier, Temperature regulation, Sensory reception, Vitamin D production, Blood reservoir, Excretion

Epidermis

keratinized stratified, squamous epithelium

Four types of cells:

Keratinocyte, Langerhans cell, Merkel cell, Melanocyte

Keratinocytes

Produce keratin and lamellar granules

Langerhans cells

Initiate immune reactions

Merkel cells

Involve touch reception

Melanocytes

Produce melanin and ship it to keratinocytes

The Dermis

Connective tissue that supports the epidermis and nurtures the hypodermis

Hypodermis

(subcutaneous layer)Not part of skin, Areolar & adipose connective tissue, Anchors skin to underlying tissue, Stores fat

The Skeletal System Functions

Support, Protection, Movement, Mineral storage, Blood cell formation (red marrow), Triglyceride storage (fats are stored in yellow marrow)

Anatomy of Bones

Specialized connective tissue, Associated with cartilage, blood, and fat

Spongy Bone

loose network of trabeculae with many spaces

Compact Bone

composed of osteons

Long Bones

Ex: humerus

Short Bones

Ex: Trapezoid, wrist bone

Flat Bone

Ex: Sternum

Irregular Bone

Ex: Vertebra

Sesamoid Bone

Ex: Patella

Gross Anatomy of the long bone

Diaphysis, Epiphysis, Periosteum, Endosteum

Diaphysis

compact; yellow marrow cavity

Epiphysis

external compact bone,internal spongy bone, has red marrow

Periosteum

covers the external surfaces

Endosteum

covers the inner surfaces

Blood Calcium Homeostasis

Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9-11 mg/100ml.

Rising blood Ca2+ levels

-The thyroid gland secretes calcitonin

-Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in bone

Falling blood Ca2+ levels

-Parathyroid glands release parathyroid hormone PTH

-Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the blood

Axial skeleton

Skull, Sternum, Rib cage, Vertebral Column

Appendicular skeleton

Pectoral Girdle (Clavicle, Scapula), Upper limbs (Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Carpals, Metacarpals, phalanges),Pelvic Girdle, Lower Limbs(Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsals, Metatarsals, Phalanges)

Fibrous joints

connected by fibrous c.t., no cavity present

Cartilaginous joints

connected by cartilage, No cavity present

Synovial joints

fluid filled cavity present, most common

The Muscular System Functions

Movement, Maintaining posture, Stabilizing the joints, Temperature homeostasis, Regulate movement of substances between compartments

Skeletal

attached to bones voluntary control striated limited regeneration

Cardiac

in heart walls, involuntary , striated, no regeneration

Smooth

in the walls of the, hollow organs, involuntary, not striated, fast regeneration

Endomysium

surrounds each individual muscle fiber

Perimysium

endomysium wrapped muscle fibers are grouped into fascicle

Epimysium

connective tissue that surrounds the whole muscle

Origin

attachment to bone that does not move during contraction

Insertion

attachment to bone that moves during contraction

Myofibril

Rod-like structures that fill the cell

Contain bundles of proteins that

compose the contractile units

Thick and Thin Filaments

The proteins of the myofibrils

Sarcomere

The contractile units formed by the thick and thin filaments of the myofibril

Neuromuscular Junction

-Neuron's axon end bulb filled with vesicles of acetylcholine (ACh)

-Impulse causes release of ACh into synaptic cleft

-ACh binds to receptors on muscle cell's motor end plate causing contraction

Axon terminal of a motor neuron

Mitochondrion

Synaptic Cleft

Junctional Folds fo the Scarolemma at the moter end plate

Synaptic Vesicle

Agonist

primary mover, the muscle that is contracting

Antagonist

stretches when the agonist is contracting

Synergist

muscles that assist primary mover and/or stabilizes a joint during a contraction