section 2

Mental Representation

Bits of memory representing objects, events, people, and other things not actually present.

Heuristic

A rule-of-thumb strategy used in problem solving that may not guarantee a solution.

Well-Structured Problems

Problems with clear paths to solutions, often solved using algorithms or heuristics.

Ill-Structured Problems

Problems that do not have clear solutions and often require intuition to solve.

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning that moves from a general set of data to more specific conclusions.

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning that moves from specific data to more general conclusions.

Language Acquisition Device

A biological mechanism proposed by Noam Chomsky that predisposes humans to develop language skills.

Linguistic Relativity

The hypothesis that language influences thought and perception.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A measure of intelligence derived from standardized tests, designed to assess human intelligence.

Divergent Thinking

A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to understand and manage one's own emotions, as well as the emotions of others.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tend to remain stable over time.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to reason and solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge.

Prototype

The most typical member of a category, serving as a mental benchmark.

Exemplar

A mental representation of an actual instance of a given category.

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to estimate the frequency of an event based on how quickly examples come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to categorize something based on how similar it is to a typical case.

Natural Concepts

Categories that have characteristic features but do not have fixed defining features.

Formal Concepts

Categories that have defined rules and properties, such as geometric shapes.

Memory Functions

The processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Encoding

The process of inputting information into memory in the form of memory traces.

Memory Traces

Codes that are stored as information in memory.

Storage

Where information is retained in memory.

Retrieval

Ability to recall and output information that is stored in memory.

Explicit Memory

The conscious use of memory, heavily relying on language and symbolization of concepts.

Implicit Memory

The unconscious use of memory, often utilized for everyday tasks without purposeful thought.

Sensory Memory

The initial stage of memory where information comes in from our senses.

Short-Term Memory

The stage of memory that temporarily holds information for limited amounts of time.

Long-Term Memory

The stage of memory that is for permanent storage of information.

Three-Stage Model of Memory

A model that describes memory as having three distinct stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Working Memory

A view that states memory stages run in parallel rather than in a sequence.

Declarative Memory

Memories that can be easily verbalized and include semantic and episodic memories.

Procedural Memory

Memory of how to perform tasks, often retrieved without conscious effort.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to encode new declarative memories into long-term memory.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall previously stored declarative memories.

Decay Theory

The theory that memory traces fade over time when not activated.

Interference Theory

The theory that information can obstruct the retrieval of other information.

Cue-Dependent Forgetting

Failure to retrieve memories due to lack of specific retrieval cues.

Misinformation Effect

Alteration of memory due to exposure to incorrect information after the event.

Flashbulb Memories

Detailed and vivid memories of emotionally charged events.

Levels-of-Processing Model

A theory that deeper and more elaborative processing of information leads to better retention.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to recall words from the beginning of a list better than those in the middle.

Recency Effect

The tendency to recall the last items in a list well.

Semantic Encoding

Encoding information based on its meaning.

Schemas

Organized general knowledge structures that help us make connections in memory.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior, or behavior potential, as a result of experience.

Orienting Reflex

The tendency of an organism to orient its senses toward unexpected stimuli.

Habituation

As the stimulus persists over time, we tend to respond less and less to it.

Dishabituation

Occurs when an organism begins to respond more intensely to a stimulus to which it has previously habituated.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that reliably causes an unconditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

An environmental event that elicits a reaction in an unlearned way.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

An environmental event that does not produce the reaction being studied.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

An environmental event that elicits a reaction after learning has occurred.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behaviors are controlled by consequences.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Behaviors that lead to positive outcomes will be strengthened, while behaviors that lead to negative outcomes will be weakened.

Positive Reinforcement

A behavior that leads to the addition of something pleasant.

Negative Reinforcement

A behavior that is rewarded by the removal of something unpleasant.

Positive Punishment

Occurs when a behavior results in the addition of something unpleasant.

Negative Punishment

Occurs when a behavior leads to the removal of something pleasant.

Cognitive Processes in Learning

Learning involves cognitive processes that are somewhat separate from actual behavior.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs when one observes the behavior of others.

Bobo Doll Experiment

An experiment by Albert Bandura demonstrating that children learn behaviors through observation and modeling.

Spontaneous Recovery

The temporary increase in response to a conditioned stimulus after extinction has occurred.

Taste Aversion

A learned response where a particular food is rejected after being paired with nausea.

Extinction

The process of removing a conditioned response by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Counterconditioning

The process of conditioning a participant to have a different, incompatible response to a stimulus.

Shaping

Building new behavior by rewarding successive approximations to the desired behavior.