History Y10 revision

Reasons for distrust between USSR and USA

• 1945: Post-WW2 disagreements on future began

• USSR claimed Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia + land from Czechoslovakia and Romania

• Stalin helps to make Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland communist

• Churchill makes statement of an ‘iron curtain’ dividing Europe’s capitalist west and communist east

• March 1947: US willing to pay huge amounts of money to Europe’s devastated countries through Marshall Plan

• Truman makes speech, US would help any country threatened by communism to ‘contain’ communism

• September 1947: Stalin confirms communist leaders are coordinated in work + policies

• 1949: USSR conducts first successful nuclear bomb test to make them the 2nd nation to detonate nuclear weapon

• USA, Britain, France, Belgium, Canada + other European countries form NATO

• Communists form Warsaw Pact as a response with Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland

• Cold War starts with proxy wars and words, bluffs, threats and propaganda and carries on this way

Background to Korea

• Occupied by Japan in early 1900s

• In 1945 when Japan defeated in WW2, it had to give up Korea

• Soldiers in north surrendered to USSR forces, north surrendered to US forces. Divided into 2 separate zones, intended to be temporary with plans for elections for a united, independent country

• 1948: pre-elections, Soviets allowed Kim-il-Sung to take power so there were no elections

• In the southern Us part, Syngman Rhee elected who had strong ties to the USA

• North’s capital Pyongyang and Soviet-backed leader, South’s capital Seoul and US-backed leader.

• Both leaders wanted unified Korea but they had contrasting plans and ideas

Start of the war + things that triggered it

• Stalin gave permission to invade in April, but invasion started on June 25 1950

• They took control of everything except Pusan in less than 2 months

• Triggered international response

• US vetoed decision to let communist china back in to UN

• US sent troops to defend SK

• US antagonism like Marshall plan and Truman doctrine angered USSR

• USSR forced KIS into power and they were father country of NK

• Provided military support in weapons, equipment and training

• USSR boycotted UN due to China being rejected, so it meant they couldn’t prevent counter-attack

• China’s communist revolution led by Mao Tse-tung creates fear in US

• China sent troops to help NK which escalated the war

• The division of Korea meant SK reliant on US support and the growth of nationalism

• UN sent 16 states’ troops to fight which expanded a localised invasion to an international war

Truman, General MacArthur + stages of the war

• Truman came from a poor farming family and became vice president in 1944 and president from 1945-53

• Supported Marshall plan and hated communism

• MacArthur was son of a US army general and was strong-willed, arrogant and stubborn, even described as a bully

• Appointed chief of UN forces in Korea

• He decided to stop collapse of SK forces and land at Pusan and Inchon to push back NK forces

• By early October 1950, all NK troops had been driven out from the south

• There were 590,911 SK troops, 302,483 US troops and 14,198 UK troops in Korea

• Un decided to cross border into NK and hoped to unify Korea

• MacArthur believed China would not get involved

• China warned on 19 October 1950 if UN forces continued to move north towards china, China would support and join NK in the war

• UN ignored the warning and 200,000 Chinese troops fought back

• Chinese pushed and re-took Seoul

• Un then took back Seoul and two sides were roughly back where they started by March 1951

• Truman wanted to stop the conflict as he feared it might end in nuclear war

• MacArthur wanted to unify Korea and was prepared to use nuclear weapons

• MacArthur sacked as he refused to follow orders

• US public hated this as he was a ‘war hero’

Gains and losses of Korean war

• NK:600,000 civilians killed, ~406,000 military killed, 1.5m military wounded

• SK: 1m civilians killed, 217,000 military killed, 429,000 military wounded

• US: $60bn cost, 36,568 military killed, 103,284 military wounded, failed to achieve a unified Korea but ‘saved’ SK from communism, containment policy worked

• USSR: closer relationship with china but increased tensions with US and also cost them a lot economically

• UN: stopped aggression and gained respect but Norwegian Secretary General resigned, 3,063 military killed, 11,817 military wounded

• China: 600,000 military killed, 716,000 military wounded, was a poor country and war was costly, US cut ties with them for 25 years, but gained a closer relationship with USSR

• Overall impacts on Korea: Civilian and military casualties, 80% industrial and government buildings destroyed, ~50% housing and most of transportation services, no gains as it is technically still in a state of war

Background on Vietnam

• 1945: Ho Chi Minh declares Vietnam independent after Japanese withdrawal

• 1946-54: First Indochina War as France tries to reclaim and keep control of Vietnam

• 1947: Truman promises to fight communism

• 1954: France withdraws from Vietnam and it is partitioned into 2

• 1957: Civil war breaks out in Vietnam

• 1964: USA begin fighting directly in Vietnam

• 1969: Peace talks begin

• 1973: Paris Peace Agreement signed and USA withdraw from Vietnam

• 1975: Communist North Vietnam invades south and unifies the country

French defeat in Vietnam

Vietminh

• Wanted Vietnam to be independent and comunist\

• Wanted French to stop ruling them

• Guerrilla warfare, surprise attacks + interfering with communication, strategic approach

• 12,000 wounded, 8,000 killed

French

• Wanted to reclaim Vietnam as part of its empire

• Controlled towns, cities and ports

• Counter attacking with brute force, not much tactics

• 190,000 severely injured, 80,000 killed

Ngo Dinh Diem

• Was a Catholic who worked for the French for a while

• In 1945, captured by Ho Chi Minh but refused to join their government

• Went to US and JFK saw him as a good president for Vietnam

• In 1954, he became president of SV, used violence and nepotism to keep control

• Americans had issues with him like him acting independently and refusing to take their guidance, Americans didn’t like his decisions, he held early elections, ignored their advice to announce a more believable 70% majority rather than his claim of 98.2%, where he supposedly beat former emperor Bo Dai

• Americans put Diem’s name in red for the election, a sign of good luck in Vietnam. Diem ordered supporters to intimidate people who looked like they weren't voting for him

• Killed in a coup on 2 November 1963

• Buddhists opposed him as he gave preferential treatment to Catholics and put in anti-Buddhist policies

• His downfall started when his brutal regime reached the US press and due to the backlash, US stopped supporting him

• The people revolted against him on 1 November 1963 and him and his brother were surrounded by troops and they surrendered the next day- while they were being taken away, they were shot dead on 2 November 1963

Opposition to Diem

• The NLF (national liberation front) were a group of nationalists who wanted land to be given back to peasants, and to unite Vietnam. They wanted to overthrow Diem and get rid of him regime of Catholic dominance, and create a government that supported all social classes and religions. Targeted officials in Diem’s government and many hundreds of government workers were murdered.

• Buddhists were organised and used hunger strikes, mass rallies and invited foreign press to cover events

• Most famous protest was self-immolation of a monk, Thich Quang Duc, while people handed out leaflets calling for Diem to show compassion to other religious groups

Civil war

Many of Diem’s opponents believed only armed rebellion could stop him and lot joined NLF. US supported Diem and sent around $1.6 in the 1950s and military advisors. Civil war broke out in 1957

Vietcong (NLF) tactics against Diem

• Travelled very light with an accurate and reliable AK-47, ration of rice and punji sticks to make traps with

• Reliant on peasants and workers help

• Key aims:

• 1.Replacement of Diem with a government representative of all social classes and religions

• 2.Unification of Vietnam free from foreign influence

• 3.Promotion of peasants’ rights and to stop poverty

Eisenhower’s Involvement in Vietnam

• Propaganda against Ho Chi Minh and NV

• Supplied Diem with money, weapons and military equipment and advisors to help fight Vietcong (NLF)

• Invited SV to join SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation) including Australia, Britain, Pakistan, New Zealand and France who aimed to work together to stop communism in SE Asia

• Sent military advisors to SV

• Sent CIA intelligence to SV’s largest city, Saigon, to gather info for US government

• Key facts: Served in US army, 1920s-30s

• Became supreme commander of NATO forces in Europe, Dec 1950

• Agreed to ceasefire in Korea, July 1953

• President from 1953-61, lived from 1890-1969

Kennedy’s Involvement in Vietnam

• Born into wealthy and political Irish-American family

• Assassinated in 1963 in Dallas, Texas

• Kept US involvement secret as he worried about public opinion, approved a coup in SV to remove Diem

• Increased financial aid to Vietnam

• Strategic hamlets forced peasants to leave Vietcong-controlled areas and move to small villages loyal to Diem

• Increased military experts to 16,000 who trained SV army

• Sent 300 US helicopter pilots to SV to transport ARVN soldiers, strictly told not to fight

Gulf of Tonkin

• 3rd August: American USS Maddox followed by torpedo boats, they both retaliated and US shot down all 3 boats, US were in enemy waters

• 7th August 1964: G.o.T resolution led to escalation in US involvement and direct US soldiers, had no limit to amount of spending in Vietnam

• Operation Rolling Thunder, 13th Feb 1965: US aircraft bomb oil storage and 2 other areas along with government building, lasted 3 years

• US sent in 200,000 soldiers to directly fight in Vietnam

US tactics in Vietnam

• Lots of young and inexperienced soldiers, soon average age was 19 and most had never been abroad

• 1966: Racial inequality as 41% were black while only making up 11% of US population

• 1968: Black people made up 12% of army but 50% were frontline

• 1970: made up 11% of army but were 22% of casualties#

• Lots of soldiers weren’t used to other different environments and cultures

• US dropped more bombs in Vietnam than have ever been dropped in whole of human history

• Used superior firepower and technology to use search and destroy tactics where they would search villages for Vietcong soldiers, if any were found, they would destroy village as a warning

• Used lots of chemical warfare like agent orange used to destroy the jungle and napalm, which would burn through anything, even muscle and bone

• Disrupted Ho Chi Minh trail(supply routes for NV)

• MI6 rifle unreliable and got jammed, especially when coming into contact with water

Tet Offensive

• All out assault on 100 cities in the South by Vietcong

• April 1967: commander of US forces in Vietnam (Westmoreland) told US public war was nearing the end

• Vietcong carried out some major attacks in early 1968 (Tet Offensive)

• Around 84,000 VC troops simultaneously attacks >100 cities, towns and US military bases

• US responded by regaining control of all places , some took hours while others took weeks

• Devastation seen on Tv severely damaged national confidence in president Johnson’s war policies

Turning points of Tet

• Post-Tet, US public increasingly disillusioned with the war and realised it wasn’t over

• President Johnson didn’t re-run for election in Nov 1968

• Although US regained control, it cost them lots of artillery and airpower - by now war was costing $30bn/year and 300 US soldiers killed every week, number of deaths surpassed Korean war

• Lots of Vietnamese civilians killed and ancient monuments and cities destroyed, made US citizens question US involvement

Impacts of Tet on US

• A military victory as they regained control of major cities, but war was costing a lot

• Number of US and ARVN troops were less than 10,000

• A political defeat as American opinion turned against involvement in the war

• Credibility gap grew between what government was saying and what public believed and saw on TV

• President Johnson chose not to re-run shortly after

Impacts of Tet on Vietcong

• A major military defeat as 50,000 NV army and 10,000 VC killed

• Political victory

• Changed ‘hearts and mind‘ in US against the war

• Number of anti-war demonstrations increased

My Lai massacre

• Charlie Company suffered a few casualties despite never directly fighting Vietcong which lowered morale and made them feel vengeful

• A search and destroy mission was planned to kill expected VC soldiers and destroy food and water sources

• Began immediately firing at buildings and throwing grenades into houses

• Unsuccessful as no VC soldiers were found

• Investigation by Us army and government revealed 347-504 unarmed civilians had been massacred and event was deliberately covered up by Charlie Company

• Lt. William Calley only one charged which was controversial as 100s of others took part doing worse things, army recommended 25 others should be prosecuted

Nixon’s plans to stop the war: Bombing campaigns

• More bombs dropped under Johnson

• Cambodia secretly bombed to avoid public outcry

• Bombing on Laos partially worked as an attack but ARVN troops soon beaten back

• 1969-72, lots of bombing raids concentrated in SV and Cambodia, also in Laos and NV

Vietnamisation

• Wanted to build up SV’s army (ARVN) until it could carry on the war independently

• US soldiers trained, equipped and expanded the ARVN and they could return home

• Realised process would be gradual so he spent vast sums of money on this plan

• Within months, around half of the adult SV population had signed up

Peace talks

• USA + USSR had very bad relations by late 1960s

• To fix this in 1970 talks began on limiting the amount of nuclear weapons they both had and Nixon asked USSR to pressure NV to end the war

• In 1972, Nixon went to China and became first US president to do so after it became communist

• Also asked China to encourage NV to end the war

Withdrawal of US troops

• Realised that he couldn’t immediately withdraw the troops, decided to destroy as many Vietcong bases as possible before the US army left

• However, the Vietcong had bases bordering Cambodia and were supplied by Ho Chi Minh trail, where a lot of their bases were too

Invasion of Laos and Cambodia

• Nixon tried to bomb the Ho Chi Minh trail and Vietcong bases in Cambodia but failed

• Ordered the invasion of Cambodia and 150,000 more Vietnam troops

• Communist Khmer Rouge gained a lot of support quickly by the peasants and membership rapidly grew

• In Laos, there was an attack on Vietnamese troops, however, ARVN were beaten back and NV troops launched major attack on SV in spring 1972

• Increased support for communists called Pathet Lao and by 1973, controlled most of the country

USA financial cost

• Cost $170bn (close to $1tn today)

• Additional costs in terms of benefits and pensions to US vet.’s and families (estimated to double war cost)

USA human cost

• 58,000 Americans with an average age of 23 were killed

• Over 300,000 injured

• Many returning soldiers faced stigma from anti-war protesters as well as war supporters (as they lost the war)

• Many survivors were affected psychologically and suffered from what we now recognise as PTSD

• Other war vets were affected by drug addictions as a result of their experiences

• Investment in services such as education and medical care suffered as a result of money being diverted into the war eg. Johnsons plans for social reforms known as the Great Society and War on Poverty couldnt be completed

USA political cost

• Politicians failed to deliver on their promises due to conflict, damaged rep’s

• Anti-war movement caused a split within American society

• Cover up of My Lai massacre and other events damaged credibility of US government, led people to suspect and distrust it

• USA’s int’l rep as big superpower damaged

• Rep as leader of peace and freedom destroyed due to Kent state shooting

• War proved US couldn’t contain communism

• Domino theory disproved as India and Thailand never became communist

Vietnam financial cost

• Financial cost a lot lower than US but country left more economically damaged

• Many people faced starvation due to the war

Vietnam human cost

• ~1m soldiers (N+S) and 2m wounded

• ~2m Vietnamese civilians killed and 5m injured, with a lot having lifelong effects

• 11m became refugees as homes were destroyed by the war, lots of these had lives ruined because of the war

• Around 100,000 children born as result of US soldiers and Vietnamese women

• In 1975, ~3000 infants flown out of Vietnamese orphanages and adopted by people around the world called ‘Operation Babylift‘

• 1000s others remained and ridiculed, some sold or given away to relatives

Vietnam political cost

• Vietnam faced hostility from US post war

• Was communist but many citizens in south resented communist rule

• >1m Vietnamese citizens rejected communist government completely and left in search of a better life elsewhere (Malaysia and Hong Kong but many later settled in US/ Europe)

Vietnamese environmental cost

• Huge areas of farmland and jungle that fed the Vietcong and hid their troops were deliberately destroyed in by US

• In 1969, >1m hectares of forest was destroyed using Agent Orange

• Between 1962 and 1969, nearly 300,000 ha of farmland was sprayed with chemicals to make it barren

• Lots of soldiers and civilians developed cancer or other illnesses due to the chemicals

• Children born with disabilities because of the chemicals

• Vietnam became most heavily bombed country in history

• Between 1964 and 1973, >7m tonnes of bombs dropped (WW2=2m tonnes)

• Bombs destroyed roads, bridges, cultural landmarks and crucial irrigation systems

• Even today, UXBs continue to cause death and injury

1272 England - Power of the king

• Main source of wealth and power was land

• Marcher Lords = strong landowners on border regions with Wales and Scotland

• Tried to extend power at the cost of their neighbours

• Kings kept land to hunt or recreation

• Landowners wanted grazing land as sheep were more profitable

The Church

• Church courts wanted more power than royal courts and vice versa so this caused issues

• Monasteries provided healthcare

• Clerics (churchmen) employed by the King as they were literate

Agriculture

• Population in 1272 was around 4.75m

• Wool was the most important trading commodity

Towns

• Population of London was around 10,000

• Winchester, Lincoln and Norwich had >5,000 population

• Villeins could be free if they survived a year without being caught so it was worth the risk

• Greater risk of illness in towns rather than villages

• Guilds were powerful as there was a lot of craftsmen with high wages and were similar to a worker’s union

Food

• Pottage was common and a stew that contained beans, peas and oats, with herbs, meat or fish depending on availability

• Wealthy thought vegetables were only for poor people so often refused to eat them

• Many animals were slaughtered in autumn as there was a lack of animal food in winter

Feudal system

• Villein - a peasant who was trapped at the bottom of the feudal system

• Freeman - an ex-villein who managed to escape the feudal system and weren’t tied to a manor, and could own land

• Homage - A ceremonial act that formalised the relationship between knights and barons

• Overlord - a lord who had authority over one or more vassals

Edward 1 background pt 1

• Plantagenets was a royal house of England, which reigned from 1154-1485 and provided 14 kings

• Magna Carta (1215)

  • Included access to a fair and free trial, no new taxes without barons’ agreement and a council of barons to ensure the king followed the laws

  • King John, Edward’s grandfather, refused to follow the MC

• Led to First Barons’ war (1215-1217)

  • Civil war in England

  • Barons rebelled after King John refused to follow MC

  • When John died, his son Henry III was forced to reissue MC 3 times and in 1297 Edward I renewed it again

  • Some of its principles can be seen in modern democracies today

Edward 1 background pt 2

• Provisions of Oxford (1258)

  • Council of 15 barons to advise the king, who cannot make decisions without them

  • Taxes decided locally, not by the King

  • No foreigners can hold senior positions

• Provisions of Westminster (1259)

  • Replaced PoO

  • Introduced more restrictions on the king, especially on tax collection

• Led to Second Barons’ War

  • Struggle between Henry III and Simon de Montfort from 1264-1267

  • In 1264, de Montfort took Henry and Edward captive after defeating them at Battle of Lewes

  • De Montfort’s rule of England came to an end in 1265 when he was killed at the Battle of Evesham

Key events in early life (b.1239)

• 1246 - serious illness but nursed by his mother, shows he was resilient, religious, believed he was divine

• Late 1240s - Edward develops a keen interest in the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, shows he was curious and interested

• 1254 - Edward is married off to Eleanor of Castille, 2nd cousin, in a political marriage to reaffirm English control of Gascony, shows he was respectful of his parents

• 1254 - Edward is given land in Wales, Ireland and Channel Islands, shows he was powerful

Key battle events (age 19-33)

• 1258 - Barons revolt in the 2nd Barons’ War and force the King to accept the PoO, which reduced his authority and reintroduced a baronial governing council, Edward goes against his father and supports barons, shows he was rebellious, independent, fair ruler

• 1261 - Barons’ power increases, Edward supports his father now, shows he was indecisive, unsure, adaptable

• 1264 - De Montfort captures Edward + dad at Battle of Lewes, takes over kingdom, De Montfort calls Europe’s 1st elected parliament with 2 representatives from towns + counties

• 1265 - Edward escapes prison and defeats DM at battle of Evesham, shows he was strong and good in battle

• 1265-1272 - Edward effectively rules England for his father, shows he was independent

• 1270 - Edward leaves for 8th crusade, with 250 knights + 1000 men, defeated by Muslims + wounded by poisoned dagger, he survives, shows he was resilient, believes he was chosen to be a leader, devout

• 1272 - Edward’s dad dies while E is on crusade, returns to England in 1274 and coronation takes place

Issues Edward faced when becoming King - Barons

• Father pushed them too far + DM made his father look weak

• Edward was determined to never look weak or overpowered

• Knew the nobles were a huge threat and couldn’t rule without them

• Wasn’t willing to follow PoO but was aware he couldn’t do as he liked

Finances

• Father’s reckless rule left Edward with insufficient funds and father’s attempt to raise taxes fuelled conflict with barons, so Edward had to be careful

• He wanted to go to war but knew it would hurt the country, so looked to trade as a fix, especially customs payments

• Started wool trade in 1275 and was effective in making money. This was a good solution

Wales

• E found Wales annoying as there were rebellions often

• He saw this as a threat to England’s security

• Prince of Wales had become more powerful during Henry’s reign and in 1275 refused to pay homage to E

• From H’s experiences with DM, he refused to allow this disrespect

War and Foreign Policy

• E wanted to win back land in France lost by his father to prove superiority

• E was Duke of Aquitaine in SW France, a title he got from his father, made him answerable to French king

• Could never accept French king was superior and hoped to lead another crusade to unite Europe in bringing Christianity to the Holy Land

How did Edward deal with nobility

• Established he was willing to work with them and include them in his government✅

• He used parliament to listen to advice and enact his ideas into law, but they were his laws ✅

• In 1278, Parliament passed Statute of Gloucester to reclaim lands and powers of the king✅

• He wouldn’t tolerate any disrespect or challenges to his authority❌

• He removed many of his father’s ministers and officials and appointed his close associate, Robert Burnell, as Chancellor, effectively his Chief Minister who would step in if the king was unavailable ❌

• Any baron who couldn’t produce proof that the land he claimed or the power he held was legal would have to return it to the king. This established all rights and power belonged to the king. The men known as General Eyres would travel the country on behalf of the king to visit and investigate landowning nobles, called Quo Warranto, they had to prove they had a royal license and they had owned it since ‘time immemorial‘ (1189), and the General Eyres followed the law closely so the king couldn’t be accused of seizing land or being unfair ❌

Subinfeudation vs Substitution

• Subinfeudation: land transferred down the feudal hierarchy but should be traced back to the king. However, as more and more land was divided (the buyer), more mesne lords were created who owed homage to another lord (the seller), rather than the king

• Substitution: The 3rd statute of Westminster banned subinfeudation in 1290 and replaced it with substitution. once land was sold, the previous owner had no further claim to it. Buyer was not expected to pay homage to the seller, this transformed the transfer of land from a feudal transaction to a commercial one

Statute

A law

Subinfeudation

Splitting estates into smaller estates within the feudal system, previous holder becomes the mesne lord of the new tenant

Mesne lord

A middle lord who owes homage to another lord rather than directly to the king

Substitution

Transferring land from one person to another without becoming their feudal lord

Frankalmoign

Transfer of lands to the Church as a gift

First statute of Westminster

• 1275

• Re-established that all power and authority came from the king

• To establish all authority and land came from the king and to get his land back

Statute of Gloucester

• 1278

• Also known as “Quo Warranto“

• Men known as General Eyres investigated landowners for validity of their landownership and checking for their royal license

• If they didn’t have the land/ property since ‘Time Immemorial‘, 1189, King Richard’s coronation

• To reclaim the land and power of the king

First + Second Statute of Mortmain

• 1279

• Stopped loophole of transferring land to the church as frankalmoign, and not paying rent to their lord or providing military service

• To gain support from barons

Second Statute of Westminster

• 1285

• Known as ‘De donis conditionalibus‘

• Land was passing between mesne lords and even peasants through sale or wedding gifts

• Some people gave land to the Church against the heir’s wishes, who had no say. This law stopped this problem

• Established the wishes of the landowner must be followed

Third Statute of Westminster

• Banned subinfeudation, replaced with substitution

• To stop too many mesne lords being created

Hundred Rolls

• A census to uncover issues and loopholes, and to reclaim royal rights

• Targeted specific counties

• Document to

  • Establish royal authority

  • stop creation of mesne lords through subinfeudation

  • stop land disputes

  • ensure he had a clear overview of the state of the country and what problems needed addressing

1^st Welsh campaign

• 1277

• E sent Marcher lords to secure area around Gwynedd

• 1st July: E marched towards the enemy + Llywelyn finally offered to negotiate, turned down

• 29 August: E reached Conwy river