Introduction to Sociology: Key Concepts and Theories

Sociology

Systematic study of human society.

Society

People who interact in a defined territory and share culture.

The Sociological Perspective

Seeing the general in the particular (Berger, 1963).

Seeing the General in the Particular

Sociologists look for general patterns in the behavior of particular people.

Seeing the Strange in the Familiar

National and global events, like the COVID pandemic, can also alter our lives.

Seeing Society in Our Everyday Lives

Does society affect decisions about childbearing?

Women's Birthrates

Women's birthrates are affected by economic development.

Global Map 1-1

Women's Childbearing in Global Perspective.

Emile Durkheim's Findings

More likely to commit suicide: men, Protestants, wealthy people, and the unmarried.

Rate of Death by Suicide

Data shows variations by race and sex in the United States.

The Power of Society

Society clearly guides the process of selecting a spouse.

Marginality

Living on the margins of society.

Social Crisis

Turning personal problems into public issues.

C. Wright Mills

The sociological imagination is the key to bringing people together to create needed change.

Global Perspective

Study of the larger world and our society's place in it.

Global Awareness

Logical extension of the sociological perspective.

Country Categories

High-income, Middle-income, Low-income.

High-income Countries

Nations with the highest overall standards of living.

Middle-income Countries

Nations with a standard of living about average for the world as a whole.

Low-income Countries

Nations with a low standard of living in which most people are poor.

Importance of Comparisons

Where we live shapes the lives we lead.

Interconnected Societies

Societies are increasingly interconnected.

Global Thinking

Thinking globally helps us learn more about ourselves.

Sociology and Public Policy

Sociologists shape public policy in countless ways.

Applying the sociological perspective

Helps us assess truth of common sense.

The Sociology Advantage

Sociology is excellent preparation for jobs in dozens of diverse fields.

The Origins of Sociology

Link the origins of sociology to historical changes in society.

A new industrial economy

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Explosive growth of cities

Impact of the enclosure movement.

Political change

Focus on personal liberty and individual rights.

Democracy born

A new awareness of society: Sociology as a discipline was born.

Social Change and Sociology

Science and Sociology.

Ancient civilizations

Thought about nature of society.

K'ung Fu-tzu (Confucius), Plato, Aristotle

Wrote about the workings of society.

Auguste Comte

Coined term 'sociology' in 1838.

Three-stage historical development

Theological stage, Metaphysical stage, Scientific stage.

Positivism

Used scientific approach to the study of society.

Sociological Theory

Theory: statement of how and why specific facts are related.

Theoretical approach

Basic image of society that guides thinking and research.

Structural-functional

Is concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole.

Social structure

Any relatively stable pattern of social behavior.

Social function

Consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole.

Manifest functions

Recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern.

Latent functions

Unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern.

Social-Conflict Approach

Factors such as social class, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation and identity, and age are linked to social inequality.

Feminism

Support of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism.

Harriet Martineau

First woman sociologist who translated Comte's work from French to English and documented the evils of slavery.

Jane Addams

Sociological pioneer who helped found Hull House and dealt with issues involving immigration and the pursuit of peace.

Race-Conflict Theory

Focus on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories.

Ida Wells Barnett

Born to slave parents, became a teacher, journalist, and newspaper publisher who campaigned for racial equality.

W.E.B. Du Bois

Earned Ph.D. in sociology from Harvard and founded the Atlanta Sociological Laboratory.

Evaluation of social-conflict theories

Gained a large following in recent decades, focuses on inequality but largely ignores how shared values unify society.

The Symbolic-Interaction Approach

Offers a close-up focus on social interactions in specific situations.

Max Weber

Understanding a setting from the point of view of the people in it.

George Herbert Mead

How we build personalities from social experience.

Erving Goffman

Dramaturgical analysis.

George Homans and Peter Blau

Social-exchange analysis.

Structural-functional approach

Directs attention to ways sports help society operate.

Sports

Have functional and dysfunctional consequences.

Social-conflict analysis of sports

Points out games reflect social standing and highlights historical male dominance in sports.

Politics of Sociology

Main benefit of learning the language of politics is empowerment to become more engaged citizens.

Sociology's levels of analysis

Includes both more political (macro-level theory) and less political (micro-level theory) levels.

Controversy & Debate in Sociology

Generalizations are not applied to everyone in a category and should be fair-mindedly offered with an interest in truth.

What are the two simple requirements for sociological investigation?

Apply the sociological perspective and be curious by asking questions.

What distinguishes scientific evidence from common sense?

Scientific evidence is based on direct, systematic observation and empirical evidence, while common sense relies on beliefs, expert opinions, and social agreements.

What are the three research orientations in sociology?

Positivist sociology, interpretive sociology, and critical sociology.

What is positivist sociology?

The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior, assuming an objective reality exists.

Define interpretive sociology.

The study of society focusing on the meanings people attach to their social world, emphasizing qualitative data.

What is critical sociology?

The study of society that focuses on inequality and the need for social change, developed in response to positivist sociology.

What is a concept in sociological research?

A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form.

What is a variable in sociological terms?

A concept whose value changes from case to case.

What is the importance of operationalizing variables?

It specifies exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable.

What are the criteria for a measurement to be useful?

It must be reliable (consistent) and valid (accurately measures what it intends to measure).

What are the three types of descriptive statistics used by sociologists?

Mode, mean, and median.

What is the difference between independent and dependent variables?

The independent variable causes change, while the dependent variable's value depends on the independent variable.

What conditions must be met for cause and effect to be established?

There must be a demonstrated correlation, the independent variable must occur before the dependent variable, and no evidence of a third variable causing a spurious correlation.

What does objectivity in sociological research entail?

Personal neutrality in conducting research, aiming for value-free research.

What is replication in sociological research?

The repetition of research by other investigators to limit distortion caused by personal values.

What are some limitations of scientific sociology?

Human behavior is complex, the presence of a researcher can affect behavior, social patterns vary over time and place, and sociologists cannot be completely value-free.

What does 'Verstehen' refer to in interpretive sociology?

The understanding of the meanings that people create in their everyday lives.

What is the primary goal of sociology according to the activist orientation?

To not just research society but also to change it.

How does gender influence sociological research?

Gender shapes research through androcentricity/gynocentricity, overgeneralizing, gender blindness, hetero-blindness, double standards, and interference.

What is the importance of informed consent in sociological research?

Subjects must be clear about their risks and responsibilities before participating.

What guidelines did Marin and Marin (1991) suggest for research with Hispanic populations?

Use careful terminology, be aware of cultural differences, anticipate family dynamics, take time, and consider personal space.

What is the purpose of an experiment in sociological research?

To investigate cause and effect under highly controlled conditions.

What is a hypothesis?

A statement of a possible relationship between two or more variables.

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

A change in a subject's behavior caused by their awareness of being studied.

What does the Stanford County Prison Experiment illustrate?

It demonstrates the dangers and required ethics in sociological investigation.

What is the difference between a population and a sample in research?

The population is the entire group being studied, while a sample is a part of the population that represents the whole.

What is a random sample?

A sample drawn from the population where every person has an equal chance of selection.

What is a self-administered survey?

A questionnaire sent to subjects who complete and return it.

What is participant observation?

A research method where investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities.

What is the role of existing sources in sociological research?

Sociologists analyze existing data, often gathered by government agencies.

What is deductive logical thought in sociological research?

It transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing.

What is inductive logical thought?

It transforms specific observations into general theory.

What are the ten steps in sociological investigation?

Identify the topic, review existing knowledge, clarify questions, determine resources, consider ethical concerns, choose a method, record data, analyze data, draw conclusions, and share findings.

What is culture?

The ways of thinking, acting, and material objects that form a people's way of life.

What are the two main types of culture?

Nonmaterial culture (ideas) and material culture (physical objects).

What is culture shock?

Personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life, often occurring during travel.

How did humans evolve in relation to culture?

Humans evolved from great apes, developed group hunting, and made use of fire, tools, and weapons, leading to cultural diversity.