English Civil War

Constitutionalism

A form of government in which a monarch's power is limited by a constitution, whether written or unwritten, and balanced by representative institutions such as Parliament.

Republicanism

A political philosophy rejecting hereditary monarchy and emphasizing government by consent of the governed, civic virtue, and representation.

James Stuart - James I (from Scotland)

James VI of Scotland became James I of England in 1603, uniting the crowns after Elizabeth I's death. He was the first Stuart monarch and a firm believer in the divine right of kings.

Absolutist Belief in Divine Right

The belief that monarchs are chosen by God and accountable only to Him.

Charles I

King of England (1625-1649), son of James I, whose insistence on divine right and attempts to govern without Parliament led to the English Civil War.

English Civil War (1642-1649)

A series of armed conflicts between the forces of King Charles I (the Royalists or Cavaliers) and those loyal to Parliament (the Roundheads, led by Puritans and Oliver Cromwell).

Puritans

A radical Protestant group that sought to "purify" the Church of England from Catholic rituals and hierarchy.

William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury

Appointed by Charles I in 1633, Laud was a staunch Anglican who tried to enforce uniformity of worship and suppress Puritanism.

Book of Common Prayer Introduced to Scotland - Scottish Rebellion

Charles I's decision to force the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Presbyterian Scotland sparked the Bishops' Wars (1639-1640).

Long Parliament (1640-1660)

Parliament called by Charles I after the Scottish Rebellion, which sat almost continuously for 20 years.

Irish Rebellion (1641)

A violent uprising by Irish Catholics against English and Protestant settlers.

New Model Army

A professional, merit-based army created by Parliament in 1645, commanded by Oliver Cromwell and Sir Thomas Fairfax, emphasizing discipline and promotion based on merit.

Oliver Cromwell

Puritan military commander and political leader (1599-1658) who defeated Charles I and ruled as 'Lord Protector' during the Protectorate.

Rump Parliament

The remnant of the Long Parliament after Colonel Pride's Purge (1648), which authorized Charles I's execution and declared England a republic.

Thomas Hobbes - Leviathan - 'Social Contract'

English philosopher (1588-1679) who argued in Leviathan (1651) that humans are naturally selfish and violent, requiring a strong ruler to maintain order.

Commonwealth of England / The Republic

The government established after Charles I's execution (1649-1653), officially a republic led by Parliament but dominated by the army and Cromwell.

The Protectorate - Lord Protector

The regime established by Oliver Cromwell in 1653, where he ruled as 'Lord Protector' until his death in 1658.

The Restoration of 1660

The period after Cromwell's death when the army and Parliament invited Charles II to return from exile, restoring the monarchy and the Anglican Church.

Test Act of 1673

Law passed under Charles II requiring all government and military officials to take Anglican communion and deny Catholic doctrines, reinforcing Anglican dominance.

Charles II

King of England (1660-1685), known as 'the Merry Monarch' for his lively court and cultural revival, though he leaned toward Catholic sympathies.

James II

King of England (1685-1688), openly Catholic and determined to promote religious tolerance for Catholics, leading to his overthrow in the Glorious Revolution.

Mary and William of Orange - William III and Mary II

Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II, and her husband William of Orange, invited by Parliament to rule jointly after James's overthrow in 1688.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688

A peaceful transfer of power in which James II fled England and William and Mary ascended the throne, marking the end of absolutism in England.

Bill of Rights (1689)

A landmark document signed by William and Mary guaranteeing Parliament's authority over taxation, laws, and succession. It also affirmed civil rights such as freedom of speech in Parliament and protection against cruel punishment, forming the foundation of British constitutional law.

John Locke - Second Treatise of Civil Government

Philosopher (1632-1704) who developed the concept of government as a mutual agreement between rulers and the governed. In his Second Treatise (1690), he argued that individuals possess natural rights — life, liberty, and property — and that governments exist to protect these. If rulers fail to do so, citizens have a right to revolt. His ideas inspired liberal democracy and later the American Revolution.

Natural Rights - Life, Liberty, Property

Fundamental rights that all humans possess by nature, according to John Locke. These rights are inherent, inalienable, and must be protected by governments. If they are violated, people have the right to overthrow oppressive rule.

House of Stuart

The royal family that ruled Scotland from the 14th century and England from 1603 to 1714. The Stuarts were known for their conflicts with Parliament and attempts at absolutist rule. The dynasty ended with Queen Anne and the Act of Settlement transferring the throne to the Protestant House of Hanover.

King James Version of the Bible (1611)

Commissioned by James I to produce a uniform English translation of the Bible. The KJV unified religious language across England and became a literary and religious classic with lasting cultural impact.

Book of Sports

A royal decree issued by James I (and reissued by Charles I) listing permissible Sunday recreational activities. It angered Puritans, who believed Sundays should be reserved solely for worship and rest.

Puritan "Separatists"

A radical branch of Puritanism that wanted to completely break from the Church of England rather than reform it. Many fled persecution to the Netherlands and then to North America, where they became the Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony.

Duke of Buckingham

George Villiers, a powerful court favorite of both James I and Charles I. His corruption and influence over royal decisions infuriated Parliament. He was assassinated in 1628.

Gunpowder Plot - Guy Fawkes (1605)

A failed conspiracy by Catholic extremists, including Guy Fawkes, to blow up Parliament and assassinate James I. The plot aimed to restore Catholicism but its failure led to intensified anti-Catholic laws and the annual "Guy Fawkes Day" celebration.

Petition of Right (1628)

A document presented by Parliament to Charles I demanding recognition of traditional liberties: no taxation without consent, no imprisonment without cause, no quartering of soldiers, and no martial law in peacetime. Charles ignored it, worsening tensions.

John Hampden and John Pym

Leaders of the Parliamentary opposition to Charles I. Hampden resisted illegal taxation (ship money), and Pym organized parliamentary resistance, helping to trigger the Civil War.

Puritans in Parliament

Puritan MPs formed the backbone of Parliament's opposition to Charles I. They sought to reduce royal and episcopal power and implement Protestant reforms. Their victory in the Civil War led to a brief Puritan republic.

Short Parliament (1640)

A Parliament called by Charles I to raise funds to suppress the Scottish Rebellion. It lasted only three weeks after refusing to grant funds without addressing grievances, forcing Charles to call the Long Parliament.

Gentry

Wealthy landowners below the nobility who gained power in Parliament and local government. They supported constitutionalism and Puritan reforms and became a major political force in 17th-century England.

Roundheads vs. Cavaliers

Nicknames for the opposing sides in the English Civil War. "Roundheads" were Parliamentarian forces (often Puritans), while "Cavaliers" were Royalists loyal to the king. Their conflict symbolized the struggle between absolutism and parliamentary government.

Pride's Purge

Event in which Colonel Thomas Pride forcibly removed moderate members of Parliament who opposed trying Charles I for treason.

James, Old Pretender

James Francis Edward Stuart, son of James II. After his father's overthrow, he claimed the English throne and led failed Jacobite uprisings (1715). Known as the "Old Pretender," his cause symbolized lingering support for the Stuarts.

Agricultural Revolution

A period in the 18th century marked by significant changes in agricultural practices, leading to increased productivity.

Soil Exhaustion

A major pre-modern agricultural problem caused by continuous planting without rotation, which depleted nutrients.

Fallow

A field left unplanted for a season to restore nutrients.

Three-Year Rotation / Three-Year System

A traditional medieval system rotating crops between three fields — one for grain, one for legumes or root crops, and one left fallow.

Gleaning of Grain

An old custom allowing peasants to collect leftover grain after harvest.

Russian Serfs

Peasants bound to landowners under feudal conditions, forming the labor base of Russian agriculture.

Clover

A nitrogen-fixing plant used in crop rotations to restore soil nutrients and feed livestock.

Fodder Crops

Crops such as clover, alfalfa, and turnips grown to feed animals through winter.

Enclosure

The consolidation of open fields and common lands into privately owned, fenced farms.

Jethro Tull

Innovative English farmer (1674-1741) who developed the seed drill and promoted scientific farming.

The Seed Drill

Invented by Jethro Tull, it mechanically planted seeds at uniform depth and spacing.

Selective Breeding

Technique of mating animals with desirable traits to improve livestock.

Enclosure Movement

The widespread privatization and fencing off of common lands in the 18th century.

Proletarianization

The process by which rural farmers lost land and became wage-dependent laborers.

Explosion of Population

Rapid population growth in the 18th century due to agricultural improvements, declining mortality, and better nutrition.

Cottage Industry

A pre-industrial system where families produced goods, especially textiles, in their homes for merchants.

Putting-Out System

An arrangement in which merchants provided raw materials to rural workers, who processed them at home.

John Kay's Flying Shuttle

A major invention that allowed one weaver to operate a loom twice as fast.

Industrious Revolution

A period in which families began working more intensively and producing for the market rather than subsistence.

Guild System

Medieval organization of artisans that regulated training, prices, and quality.

Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism

Scottish economist and philosopher (1723-1790) who wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776) and argued for free markets.

Henry IV (Henri le Grand)

First Bourbon king of France (r. 1589-1610); ended the French Wars of Religion by issuing the Edict of Nantes, restored order, and laid the foundations for absolutism.

Marguerite (Margo) of Valois

Henry IV's first wife; marriage arranged to unite Catholics and Huguenots and ease religious conflict (it failed and preceded the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre).

Marie de Medici

Henry IV's second wife; served as regent for their son Louis XIII after Henry's assassination and brought Italian cultural influence to France.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

Decree by Henry IV granting limited religious toleration to Huguenots; ended the French Wars of Religion and promoted civil peace.

Louis XIII

Son of Henry IV; ruled with the guidance of Cardinal Richelieu, who strengthened royal power and reduced noble and Huguenot influence.

Cardinal Richelieu

Chief minister to Louis XIII; centralized royal authority by weakening nobles and Huguenots, and strengthened France's role in the Thirty Years' War.

Louis XIV

"Sun King," model of absolutism (r. 1643-1715); centralized power, built Versailles, and fought many wars to expand French power.

Cardinal Mazarin

Successor to Richelieu and regent for young Louis XIV; crushed the Fronde and preserved royal authority during Louis XIV's minority.

The Fronde

Series of noble revolts (1648-1653) against royal power during Louis XIV's youth; convinced him to establish absolute control later.

Robe Nobles (Nobility of the Robe)

Nobles whose status came from holding judicial or bureaucratic office; loyal to the king and supportive of absolutism.

Sword Nobles (Nobility of the Sword)

Traditional hereditary nobles from military service; often resisted royal centralization and led uprisings like the Fronde.

Divine Right

Doctrine that monarchs derive authority directly from God and are accountable only to Him; justified absolutism.

"Sun King"

Louis XIV's nickname; symbolized his role as the center of France and source of light and order for the nation.

Palace at Versailles

Extravagant royal residence built by Louis XIV; symbol of absolutist power and a tool to control the nobility.

French Classicism

Art and literature style under Louis XIV emphasizing order, harmony, and classical ideals reflecting absolutist control.

Mercantilism

Economic policy promoting government regulation of trade to increase national wealth and power; heavily used by Louis XIV's minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert.

Company of the East Indies

French trading company founded under Colbert to compete with Dutch and English trade in Asia; part of mercantilist expansion.

Absolutism

System of government in which the monarch holds all power over the state and its people, unchecked by other institutions.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

Mass killing of Huguenots by Catholics in Paris; escalated the French Wars of Religion.

Politique

Practical rulers who prioritized state stability over religious ideology; Henry IV is the prime example.

Conversion of Henry IV to Catholicism

Henry's pragmatic move to unite France ("Paris is worth a mass"); ended religious conflict.

L'état, c'est moi

"I am the state"; phrase attributed to Louis XIV expressing his view of absolute monarchy.

War of Devolution (1667-1668)

Louis XIV's attempt to claim the Spanish Netherlands through his wife's inheritance rights; ended with limited gains.

Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678)

War against the Dutch Republic to expand French territory; ended with Treaty of Nijmegen and minor gains for France.

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

Fought over control of the Spanish throne; other powers opposed France to maintain balance of power.

Peace of Utrecht (1713)

Ended War of Spanish Succession; allowed Louis XIV's grandson Philip V to rule Spain but barred union with France; marked the rise of Britain.

Revoking of the Edict of Nantes (1685)

Louis XIV's suppression of Protestant rights; led to Huguenot emigration and economic decline.

Glorious Revolution (1688-1689)

English revolution replacing James II with William III and Mary II; established a constitutional monarchy limiting royal power.

Moriscos Expelled (1609-1610)

Spain's expulsion of Muslim converts; weakened the economy by removing skilled workers.

Thirty Years' War (for the Spanish)

Spain fought to maintain Catholic dominance and control in Europe; ended with loss of influence and decline of Spanish power.

Dutch Republic

Independent Protestant state formed after rebellion against Spain; model of a successful commercial republic.

Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands

Formal name of the Dutch Republic established in 1581; confederation of seven provinces.

Golden Age

17th century period of Dutch economic prosperity, artistic brilliance, and maritime dominance.

Oligarchy of Regrets

Wealthy merchant elites who governed Dutch towns and provinces.

Estates

Representative assemblies in each province that held local authority.

States General

Federal assembly of the Dutch Republic representing all provinces; handled foreign affairs and defense.

Holland

Most powerful and wealthy province of the Dutch Republic, dominated by Amsterdam.

Stadholder

Executive officer or provincial leader, often from the House of Orange.

Prince of Orange

Hereditary title held by leaders of the Dutch Republic; the family produced several Stadholders and later kings.