Biology Midterm Vocab Pt. 2

Empirical

Directly Observable

Shaping Principles

non-empirical factors and assumptions that influence how we interprate/use science

Limitations to Science

Not everything can be proved by science, including the existence of God.

Fraud in the Anthropology Community

Pig’s teeth in homeosapien skull, falsifying dates, gluing broken skulls together, etc.

Differences between Science and Pseudoscience

Science: body of knowledge that studies nature

Pseudoscience: claim that lacks supporting evidence, and can’t be tested.

8 characteristics of living things

\-Made of cells

\-Grows/develops

\-Reproduces/has offspring

\-Responds to stimuli/changes in environment

\-Requires energy: all living things require energy to survive

\-Homeostasis: regulation of internal environment to maintain condition.

\-Adaption: inherited characteristics that develop to survive

Electron Microscope

Use magnets to aim a beam of electrons at objects. Can’t be used on living organisms.

Light Microscopes

Use combinations of glass lenses to magnify objects. They can be magnified x1000 before becoming blury

Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM)

*  Send the electrons through the object onto a fluorescent screen that creates an image.

Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM)

* Send the electrons over the surface of an object creating a 3D image.

Dry Mount

*  Need a glass slide and a cover slip, place the sample on the slide and cover. Easiest to make, but are temporary and harder to see.

Wet Mounts

place a few drops on the slide, add specimens, then add more drops. Apply a coverslip. It is good for getting a clear view, but slides dry out under the light.

Prepared Mount

Slice the specimen very thinly. Place it on the slide. Add dye to the specimen. It is semi-permanent, but it is very complex.

Four main parts of the plasma membrane

Phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, proteins, carbohydrates

Phospholipid Bilayer

* Plasma (cell) membrane layers composed of phospholipid molecules arranged with polar heads facing the outside and nonpolar tails facing the inside.

Cholesterol

*  positioned among the phospholipids. It helps to prevent the fatty-acid tails of the phospholipid bilayer from sticking together, contributing to the fluidity of the plasma membrane.

Proteins

* at the inner surface anchor the plasma membrane, giving the cell its shape. Other of them can also create tunnels for transport. They’re called receptors also transmit signals to the cell. They also contribute to the selective permeability of the plasma membrane.

Carbohydrates

* attached to proteins and they define the cell’s characteristics and help identify chemical signals.

3 Parts of Interphase

Gap 1, synthesis, Gap 2

Gap 1 Phase

 metabolism occurs at a high rate, proteins are synthesized, and cell growth is vigorous. Organelles also grow in number and size.

Synthesis Phase

*  preparations for cell division take place. DNA replicates, and proteins associated with the DNA are produced.

Gap 2 Phase

 more proteins for cell division are produced and they move to the appropriate places in the cell.

Steps of Mitosis

Prophase, late prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

Prophase

 It is the longest phase in mitosis. Begins when chromatin condenses to form distinct chromosomes.

Late Prophase

 Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell. Spindle fibers begin to form and the nuclear membrane begins to fall apart.

Metaphase

* Chromatid pairs align themselves along the equator of the cell. Kinetochore develops in between the chromatids. Spindle fibers extend from the centrioles. 

Anaphase

*  DNA at the kinetochore duplicates. The chromatids separate. An equal number of chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase

Chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the cell. They become thinner and less distinct. Spindle fibers begin to break down. Nuclear membrane begins to form around the chromosomes and nucleolus reappears.

Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

* happens when a cell plate forms between the 2 new nuclei, eventually becoming a new cell wall.

Cytokinesis in animal cells

happens by the forming of cleavage furrow and furrow pushing until two new daughter cells are made.

Quality control checkpoints

*  prevent mutations from being passed onto offspring. An example is in metaphase to anaphase, where the quality control checkpoint makes sure all the chromosomes are aligned at the equator.

2 Types of stem cells

embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells

Embryonic Stem Cells

*  not yet specialized cells that if separated, each will have the ability to develop into various types of specialized cells.

Adult Stem cells

found in various tissues in the body and might be used to maintain and repair the same kind of tissue in which they are found.

Similarities between simple and facilitated disfussion

Simple and facilitated diffusion both have no need of energy. They both move from high to low concentration

Differences between facilitated and simple diffusion

simple diffusion does not also need transport protein, but facilitated diffusion does. In simple diffusion, particles are small enough to fit between the phospholipids, but in facilitated diffusion, particles are too big to fit between phospholipids.

Similarities between active and passive transport

They are both used to transport particles.

Differences between active and passive transport

Active transport requires energy while passive transport requires no energy. Particles move from high to low concentration in passive transport, while particles move from low to high concentration in active transport.

Similarities between endocytosis and exocytosis

They are both used when particles are too big or too many even for transport proteins.

differences between endocytosis and exocytosis

Endocytosis is particles moving into the cell, and exocytosis is particles moving out of the cell.

amount of chemical reactions per enzyme

only one

activation energy

Activation energy is the amount of energy needed for a reaction to happen.

relationship between activation energy and enzymes

Activation energy is lowered by the enzyme so that reactants can react more quickly to form products.

Names of most enzymes end with:

\-ASE. (Protease, Lactase, Synthetase, and Hydrolase).

Correlation between temperature to enzymes

Temperature relates to enzymes because the temperature can denature an enzyme, or change its structure, making it unable to nid to a substrate

Correlation between pH balance and enzymes

pH balance relates to the enzymes because enzymes can also be denatured by acidic environments

anabolic metabolism

Anabolic : Combine micromolecules to make macromolecules.

Catabolic Metabolism

Catabolic : Break up macromolecules into smaller pieces.

Photosynthesis, anabolic or catabolic?

anabolic

Cellular respiration, anabolic or catabolic?

catabolic

Autotrophs

*  organism that can produce its own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.

heterotrophs

* organism that eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients.

Organic substance

* substances that contain carbon. 
* Examples : Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic acids

Glucose Different from fructose

G: 6 membered ring

F: 5 membered ring

Names of carbs end with:

end with -ose.

monosaccharides

Simple sugars, it consists of six carbon atoms located at the positions that are designated one through six.

disaccharides

Double sugar, the two monosaccharides that are bonded together.

polysaccharides

Molecules that can consist of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharide.

Animal starch/glycogen

shape is branched out

plant starch/glycogen

coiled up

saturated fats

do not have double bonds between carbon in them

unsaturated fats

always have one or more double bonds

2 parts of fats

saturated or unsaturated

Triglyceride

glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains

Steroids

*  important group of lipids that are insoluble in water and consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms arranged in rings. 
* ex. cholesterol, estrogen, androgens

Structure of amino acids

amino, alkyl, and carboxyl groups

Amino Group

contains nitrogen and hydrogen atoms

alkyl group

sidechain that can vary, be different

carboxyl group

carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen

18) Do all amino acids have the same alkyl sidechain?

No. Each amino acid has a distinct alkyl sidechain.

DNA

part of a cell that determines the sequence of a polypeptide

Ribosomes

ones that use the intructions from DNA to build the polypeptide

2 main parts of photosynthesis

light dependant and independent reactions. light dependent doesnt need sulight, the other one does.

2) What does water split into when light hits Photosystem II, and what happens to each piece?

* The water split into a pair of **H**+ and a pair of **e**- and an **oxygen molecule**. 
* **H**+ remains in thylakoid adding to the concentration gradient; **2e**- replace the ones that began the journey on the transport protein chain. 

**Oxygen** eventually binds with another one to make a diatomic oxygen molecule that is released by the plant as waste

photosynthesis formula

* **6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2**
* 6 carbon dioxide combines with 6 water molecules to produce a glucose molecule and 6 oxygen.

cellular respiration formula

* **C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O** 
* Glucose combines with six molecules of diatomic oxygen to produce six molecules of water and six of carbon dioxide.

Glycolisis

1. Glucose made during photosynthesis gains a phosphate group from ATP.
2. Glucose becomes glucose-6-phosphate, and ATP becomes ADP.
3. An enzyme rearranges glucose-6-phosphate to make it into fructose-6-phosphate.
4. Fructose-6-phosphate gains a phosphate from ATP to become fructose-1, 6 diphosphate.
5. An enzyme divides the fructose-1, 6 diphosphate into two PGAs.
6. The two PGAs each receive a phosphate group from the cytoplasm.
7. The two PGA’s then become DPGAs, each giving off a hydrogen ion in the process.
8. The two hydrogen ions are picked up by NAD+ to form NADH.
9. Each DPGA donates a phosphate group to one of two ADPs, making 2 ATPs
10. An enzyme rearranges the molecule to make another type of PGA.
11. An enzyme rearranges the two molecules to form two PEP molecules.
12. Each of the two PEPs donates a phosphate group to an ADP, forming two ATPs.
13. Each PEP molecule becomes pyruvate, also known as pyruvic acid.

Krebs Cycle

1. Pyruvate, a 3-carbon molecule combines with Coenzyme A.
2. The pyruvate then releases a carbon and becomes acetyl CoA, a two carbon molecule. 
3. Oxaloacetate, a 4-carbon molecule, combines with acetyl CoA to form a 6-carbon molecule.
4. The 6-carbon molecule is rearranged to form a different 6-carbon molecule. 
5. The 6-carbon molecule releases another carbon, to become a 5-carbon molecule, creating an NADH in the process. 
6. The 5-carbon molecule releases another carbon, to become a 4-carbon molecule, creating an NADH and an ATP in the process. 
7. The 4 - carbon molecule rearranges itself multiple times, forming ATP and electron carriers in the process, and finally gets recycled back to oxaloacetate.

Electron Transport

1. In Photosynthesis:


1. Happens in the chloroplasts.
2. Require light 
3. E- comes from a H2O molecule breaking up.
2. In Cellular respiration: 


1. Happens mostly in the Mitochondria.
2. Requires O2. 
3. E- come from NADH and FADH2. (Electron carriers). 
3. Similarities: 


1. Both use proteins in a phospholipid bilayer.
2. ATP synthase where H+ diffuses out due to a concentration gradient.
3. Have H+ transport protein that actively pumps H+ in to keep the concentration gradient alive.
4. Electrons take a journey

8 stages of Meiosis

interphase, prophase1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase 1, prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2, telophase 2, products

Interphase

stage of the cell cycle, during which a cell grows, matures, and replicates its DNA

Prophase 1

Pairing of homologous chromosomes occurs, each chromosome consists of two chromatids. Crossing over produces exchange of genetic information. The nuclear envelope breaks down and spindles form.

metaphase 1

Chromosome centromeres attach to spindle fibers. Homologous chromosomes line up at the equator.

anaphase 1

Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.

telophase 1

The spindles break down. Chromosomes uncoil and form two nuclei. The cell divides.

prophase 2

Chromosomes condense. Spindles form in each new cell. Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes.

metaphase 2

Centromeres of chromosomes line up randomly at the equator of each cell.

anaphase 2

Centromeres split. Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.

Telophase 2

Four nuclei form around chromosomes. Spindles break down. Cells divide.

products

Four cells have formed. Each nucleus contains a haploid number of chromosomes. (After meiosis)

componenets and structure of DNA

* The components of DNA are repeating units of nucleotides, whose components of nucleotides are molecules of the carbohydrate deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The base pairs are Adenine and Thymine together, and Cytosine and 
* Guanine together. 
* The hydrogen bonds connect the base pairs. Two hydrogen bonds between A and T, and three hydrogen bonds between C and G. 
* The sides of the double helix are made of sugars and phosphates.

Process of DNA replication

* Unwinding: DNA helicase unwinds the double helix.
* Binding: 


1. DNA polymerase attaches loose nucleotides to the lagging strand in discontinuous pieces called Okazaki fragments. 
2. The fragments are connected later by DNA ligase. 
3. This forms two new, identical DNA strands.

* Joining: Often the two strands are formed in chunks that are joined later. 

DNA replication happens only right before cell division, allowing there to be enough DNA to be split into daughter cells

start and stop codons

* Start codons are the codons that mark the site at which translation into protein sequence begins. 


1. AUG, methionine.

* Stop codons are the codons that mark the site at which translation ends.


1. UAA, UAG, UGA.

complete dominance

1. When one allele is fully dominant over the other. (Brown eyes)

incomplete dominance

When a heterozygous genotype produces a phenotype that is an intermediate between the two homozygous parents. (Snapdragon flowers)

codominance

1. When a heterozygous genotype produces a phenotype that expresses two alleles at the same time. (Genetic disorder called sickle cell anemia) (White and red cows)

multiple alleles

1. When there are more than just two versions of a trait. (Blood type)

polygenic traits

1. When the traits are determined by more than one gene. (height)

Blood type can relate to multiple alleles when:

* can be multiple alleles in ABO, where three alleles are present.