lab practical 1

anatomical position

to stand erect facing forward, with arms at the sides, palms of the hands turned upward, feet shoulder width apart

abdominal

abdomen

acrominal

point/joint of shoulder

antebrachial

forearm (elbow to wrist)

arm

brachial

axillary

armpit

brachial

upper arm

buccal

cheek

calcaneal

heel of foot

carpal

wrist

cephalic

head

cervical

neck

crural

lower leg (shin)

digital

fingers or toes

leg

crus or crural

femoral

thigh

frontal

forehead

gluteal

buttocks

inguinal

groin

mammary

breast

nasal

nose

occipital

back of head

oral

mouth

otic

ear

palmar

palm

patellar

knee

pelvic

pelvis

plantar

bottom of foot

popliteal

back of knee

pubic

pubis/genital

scapular

shoulder blades

sternal

breastbone/sternum

sural

calf

tarsal

ankle

thoracic

chest

umbilical

navel/belly button

vertebral

backbone/spine

lumbar

lower back

mental

chin

anterior (ventral)

front of the body/toward the front

posterior (dorsal)

back of the body/toward the back

superior

higher or located above on the body, nearer to the head

inferior

lower or located below on the body, farther to the head

medial

toward the midline

lateral

away from the midline, towards the sides

contralateral

on the opposite side of the body from another structure

ipsilateral

on the same side of the body as another structure

proximal

closer to the point of attachment/origin

distal

farther from the point of attachment/origin

superficial

near the surface

deep

away from the body surface, more internal

sagittal plane

vertical division of the body into right and left portions

midsagittal plane

divides the body into equal right and left sides

parasigittal plane

divides the body unequally into right and left parts

frontal/coronal plane

divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions

transverse ("cross-section") plane

divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts

oblique plane

divides the body at an angle (any angle)

dorsal cavity

contains the brain and spinal cord

ventral cavity

- thoracic cavity: divides into pleural cavities and pericardial cavity

- pleural cavities: lungs

- pericardial cavity: heart

- abdominopelvic: divides into abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity

- abdominal cavity: digestive organs, liver, kidneys, spleen

- pelvic cavity: urinary bladder, rectum, and reproductive organs

the parts of the cell

- cytoplasm and plasma membrane

- nucleus and nucleolus

- membranous structures - smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes

- ribosomes

- mitochondria

- centrioles

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

where lipids are synthesized, calcium levels are regulated, and toxic substances are broken down

golgi apparatus

stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum

lysosome

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

ribosome

site of protein synthesis

cillia

tiny hairlike extension that move together in a sweeping motion

microvillia

really tiny hairlike extensions that increase surface area (smaller than cillia)

stages of the cell cycle (mitosis)

interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

interphase

cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases

prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus

metaphase

second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

anaphase

the third phase of mitosis, during which the chromosome pairs separate and move toward opposite poles

telophase

the final phase of cell division in which the chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed

cytokenis

the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells after mitosis

epithelial tissue

refers to the sheets of cells that cover exterior and interior surfaces of the body, line internal cavities and passageways, and form certain glands, supports gas exchange, surface movement of substances, and absorption; appears like thousands of cells squished into layers

- skin

- lining of organs

- sweat glands

apical surface

an upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ

basement membrane/basal surface

layer between epithelium and underlying connective tissue; where epithelial cells are attached

simple squamous epithelium

single layer of flattened cells

- allows easy passage of materials by diffusion and filtration; secretes lubricating substances

- located in kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart and capillaries, and lymphatic vessels

simple cuboidal epithelium

single layer of cube shaped cells

- secretion and absorption

- located in ducts and secretory portions of small glands, kidney tubules, ovary surface

simple columnar epithelium

single layer of tall column shaped cells

- absorption, secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances

- nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder and excretory ducts of some glands

- ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus

stratified squamous epithelium

multiple layers of flat cells

- protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion

- nonkeratinized type forms the moist lining of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina

- keratinized type forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane

stratified cuboidal epithelium

two or more layers of cube shaped cells

- protection

- located largest ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands

stratified columnar epithelium

two or more layers of column like cells

- protection and secretion

- rare in the body; small amounts in male urethra and in large ducts of some glands

psuedostratified columnar epithelium

single layer of cells that appears to be made up of multiple layers of cells; each cell may have different heights/nucleus positions

- secretes substances, particularly mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action

- ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract; male's sperm carrying duct

transitional epithelium

- stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine

- only in the urinary system: lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra

connective tissue

binds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in the protection, support, and integration of all parts of the body

- made up of fibroblasts (connective tissue cells)

- bone

- fat

- cartilage

- blood

- padding tissue

areolar connective tissue (loose)

gell-like matrix with web like fibers

- fills the spaces between muscle fibers, surrounds blood and lymph vessels, and supports organs in the abdominal cavity

- underlies most epithelium

adipose connective tissue (loose)

closely packed adipocytes; acts as storage depots for fat with little cellular matrix

- rapid storage and mobilization of lipid molecules

- cushion and protection

- found cushioning around the kidneys and cushioning the back of the eye

reticular connective tissue (loose)

network of reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance; mesh-like, supportive framework

- form a framework for soft internal structures; creates network that supports attachment of other cell types like white blood cells, mast cells, & macrophages

- located in lymphoid organs, lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen

dense regular connective tissue (dense)

fibers are parallel to each other, enhancing tensile strength and resistance to stretching in the direction of the fiber orientations

- attaches muscle to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones, withstands great tensile strength when pulling force is applied in ONE direction

- makes up/located in tendons, ligaments, and layer under the epidermis

dense irregular connective tissue (dense)

fibers are in randomized directions; increases strength when pulled in multiple directions, less in one direction

- able to withstand tension exerted in MANY directions; provides structural strength.

- dermis of the skin, submucosa of digestive tract; fibrous capsules of organs and of joints

elastic connective tissue (dense)

stretchy and squiggly appearance; densely packed fibers

- allows recoil of tissue following stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs

- located in walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments associated with vertebral column, within the walls of the bronchial tubes

cartilage

connective tissue made up of chondrocytes and empty spaces called lacuna

hyaline cartilage

most abundant type of cartilage; short and dispersed collagen fibers

- forms moveable joints and embryonic skeleton

- found on the ends of long bones, ribs, and nose

elastic cartilage

cartilage with abundant elastic fibers

- gives rigid support as well as flexibility

- found in external construction of the ear

fibrocartilage

tough due to its thick bundles of collagen fibers dispersed through its matrix

- found in menisci in the knee joint and the intervertebral discs

bone

dense, mineralized, hard connective tissue composing the skeleton

blood connective tissue

fluid extracellular matrix used to transport substances throughout the body filled with blood cells

muscle tissue

excitable, responding to stimulation and contracting/lengthening to provide movement

- skeletal

- smooth

- cardiac

skeletal muscle

a muscle that is attached to the bones of the skeleton and provides the force that moves the bones; each cell

- voluntary

- striated

smooth muscle

muscle found inside many internal organs of the body that causes their movement (ex: stomach muscle)

- involuntary

- smooth