AP Psych - Unit 1 Intro, History & Methods - Complete Set

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including formulating a hypothesis, writing operational definitions, testing the hypothesis, collecting data, analyzing data, stating conclusions, and publishing results

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. ( p. 038)

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (p. 039)

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. (2e p. 039)

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (p. 040)

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. (p. 040)

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (p. 042)

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (p. 043)

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) (p. 043)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (p. 043)

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. (p. 046)

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1). (p. 046)

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (p. 046)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists. (p. 050)

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables. (p. 051)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (p. 051)

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (p. 051)

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. (p. 051)

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. (p. 051)

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (p. 052)

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. (p. 052)

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. (p. 052)

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) (pp. 053, 622)

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation. (p. 057)

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. (p. 057)

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (p. 057)

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (p. 057)

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (p. 057)

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value. (p. 058)

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (p. 058)

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (p. 058)

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (pp. 059, 621)

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population. (p. 060)

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (p. 068)

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (p. 068)

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (p. 052)

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation (p.3)

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind (p.4)

Functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish (p.4)

experimental psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method. (p. 005)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (pp. 006, 266)

humanistic approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes. (p. 007)

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (p. 009)

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (pp. 010, 135)

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. (p. 011)

behavioral approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants.

biological approach

An approach to psychology in which behavior is seen as the result of physiological processes, especially those relating to the brain, hormones, and other chemicals

cognitive approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.

Evolutionary Approach

An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.

psychodynamic/psychoanalytic approach

A view developed by Freud that emphasizes the interplay of unconscious mental processes in determining human thought, feelings, and behavior.

social-cultural approach

approach that looks at how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

Psychometric Domain

a branch of psychology that studies the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (p. 013)

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. (p. 014)

Developmental Domain

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 462

Educational Domain

a branch of psychology that studies how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. (p. 014)

Personality Domain

a branch of psychology that studies an individual's characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting. (p. 014)

Social Domain

a branch of psychology that studies how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (pp. 014, 754)

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (p. 014)

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Domain

a branch of psychology that studies the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (pp. 014, 828)

Human Factors Psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)

Counseling Domain

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (p. 014)

Clinical Domain

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (p. 014)

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (p. 015)

Positive Domain

a branch of psychology that studies human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (pp. 015, 590)

Community Domain

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups. (p. 015)

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events (p.38)

Introspection

A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings

Hawthorne effect/Observer Effect

the tendency for a subject to behave differently when they know they are being watched

positive correlation

As one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

The relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases. Each variable moves in the opposite direction.

random sampling

a method subject selection that gives each person in a group the same chance of being selected

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment (also called an extraneous variable)

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

sample bias

occurs when research participants are not representative of the larger population

demand characteristics

Any aspects of a study that communicate to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave. Could lead the participant to behave differently and impact the results of the study.

measures of central tendency

a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying the central position within that set of data (EX: mean, median, mode)

frequency distribution

a graphical representation of data arranged by the number of times each data point occurred

t-test

a statistical test that is used to determine if there is a significant difference between the mean or average scores of two groups (results in a "p-value")

p-value

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance). <0.05

APA Ethical Principles

A common set of principles and standards upon which psychologists build their professional and scientific work. It has as its goals the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom psychologists work.

Confidentiality

it is unethical for psychologists to publish the identities of their research subjects without receiving their permission

Wilhelm Wundt

"father of psychology" - German physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychological research laboratory in 1879

Edward Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; helped to found Structuralist school of psychology. Used the method of introspection in his research to scientifically identify the basic elements of mind. (1867-1927)

G. Stanley Hall

established the first psychological research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association (1844-1924)

William James

founder of functionalism; influenced by Charles Darwin (1842-1910)

Mary Whiton Calkins

first female president of the APA (1905); a student of William James; denied the PhD she earned from Harvard because of her sex (later, posthumously, it was granted to her)

Margret Floy Washburn

first woman to receive a Ph.D in Psychology and the second to become APA president (1871-1939)

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis. (1856-1939)

John B. Watson

founded behaviorism; famous for Little Albert study in which a child was taught to fear a white rat (1878-1958)

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats (1904-1990)

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

founders of humanistic psychology (1950s)

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell (1849-1936)

Jean Piaget

Cognitive psychologist, known for his theory of cognitive development in children

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Dorothea Dix

Activist who helped improve the treatment and conditions of mental patients in asylums

Apophenia

perceiving meaningful connections among unrelated and even random phenomena

cohort effect

when a commonly aged group of people in research indirectly affect results due to their common age-related influences