physiological psychology and psychopharmacology: nervious system and brain anatomy

Amygdala

A substructure of the limbic system and is involved in the control of emotional activities , including the mediations of defensive aggressive behaviors and the attachment of emotions to memories

Kluge-Bucky Syndrome

Bilateral lesions in the amygdala and temporal lobes of primates produce [blank]. Which is characterized by reduced fear and aggression, increased docility and compulsive oral exploratory behaviors, altered dietary habits, hypersexuality, and “psychic blindness” (an inability to recognize the significance or meaning of events or objects.

Autonomic Nervous System (sympathetic and parasympathetic branch)

A division of the peripheral nervous system and is involved inhe control of visceral functions.

It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

The sympathetic Nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system.

Is involved in the mediation of flight or fight (emergency) reactions.

Activation produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes.

The parasympathetic nervous system

Branch of the autonomic nervous system

Involved in the conservation of energy and relaxation. Activation is associated with slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contraction of pupils, reduction of sweat glands output, and increased activity of the digestive system

Basal Ganglia

Subcortical structures (caudate nucleus, putamen, globes pallidus, and substantia Niagara) that are involved in:

Planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movements.

Pathology of this area has been linked to Huntington’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, Tourette’s disorder, and ADHD

Brain Laterization/ Split-Brain Patients

Although the left and right hemispheres are both involved to some degree in most functions, they tend to specialize. The specialization of the two hemispheres is referred to as brain lateralization and was initially studied in split-brain patients, whose corpus callouses had been severed to control severe epilepsy.

The left (dominant) hemisphere

Hemisphere that dominates in verbal activities (spontaneous speaking and writing, word recognition, memory for words and numbers); analytical, logical thought; and positive emotional states

The right (non-dominant) hemisphere

Dominates in visual-spatial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation and memory for shapes and in negative emotions.

Cerebellum

A large structure on the dorsal aspect of the hindbrain. it is involved in the extrapyramidal control of motor activities.

Ataxia

Damage to the cerebellum can result in [blank] which is characterized by slurred speech, severe tremors, and a loss of balance.

Cerebral ventricles

The ventricles of the four cavities of the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid.

Hydrocephalus

Blockage of the ventricles and a resulting build-up of fluid can cause hydrocephalus

Contralateral Representation

For most sensory and motor functions, the cortex exhibits contralateral representation, which means that the left hemisphere controls the functions of the right side of the body and vice versa

Corpus Callusum

The left and right hemispheres are connected by several bundles of fibers, the largest of which is the [blank]. If this structure is severed, the 2 hemispheres operate essentially as separate independent brains.

Emotions (Areas of the brain)

Amygdala: plays a role the perception and expression of anger, fear, sadness, happiness, and other emotions and attaches emotion to memories

Hypothalamus: Involved in the translation of emotions to responses

Cerebral cortex: the left hemisphere governs happiness and other positive emotions whereas the right hemisphere mediates sadness, fear, and other negative emotions

frontal lobe

Occupies the major portion of the cortex and includes the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex, Broca’s area, and prefrontal cortex. It is involved in initiative, planning ability, abstract thinking, and other executive functions; personality and mood; and motor functions

Damage to Broca’s area/ Broca’s aphasia

Damage to this area produces [namesake] (expressive) aphasia. Damage to the prefrontal cortex produces personality changes and deficits in higher-level cognitive abilities.

Hippocampus

A limbic system structure that is important for spatial and explicit memory and the consolidation of declarative memories

Hypothalamus

Consists of a cluster of nuclei that control the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands, mediate basic drives, and regulate emotional expression.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Located in the hypothalamus and is involved in regulation of the body’s circadian rhythms

Learning and a memory (Areas of the brain)

The temporal lobes: Essential for the encoding, storage and retrieval of long-term declarative memories

Hippocampus: Responsible for the consolidation of long-term declarative memories (transferring information from short-term memory

Amygdala: plays a key role in fear conditioning, learning about rewards and punishments, and adding emotional significance to memories

The prefrontal cortex: implicated in short term memory, episodic memory, and prospective memory

The thalamus: involved in processing information and transferring it to the neocortex

Learning and Memory (Neural Mechanisms)

Neural mechanisms that are believed to mediate long-term memory include long-term potentiation and protein/RNA synthesis

1. Synapses, especially at glutamate receptors in the hippocampus

2. 2. Inhibiting the synthesis of protein or RNA at the time of learning prevents the formation of long-term memories

medulla

A hindbrain structure that controls the flow of information between the spinal cord and brain and regulates a number of vital functions including breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

Molecular genetic methods

Used in behavioral genetic research to classify genes responsible for genetic influence

Neuroimaging techniques

Make it possible to study both the structure and function of the living brain

Structural neuroimaging techniques

Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Neuroimaging techniques that provide information of the functional activities of the brain

Positron-emission tomography (PET scan)

Single proton emission computed tomography (SPECT)

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Neuron

Nerve cell, specialized and directly involved in mental processes and behavior. messages within a neuron are transmitted from a neuron’s dendrites to the end of its axon through an electrical process called conduction

Neuron: action potential

With sufficient stimulation for other cells, a cell becomes depolarized (the interior of the cell becomes less negative) which triggers an [blank]

Neurons: all or none principle

Predicts that an action potential will always be of the same magnitude regardless of the amount of stimulation received by a neuron as long as the minimal level of stimulation (the threshold) has been reached

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that are released from axon terminals, diffuse across synapses, and excite or inhibit receptor sites on potential nerve cells

Acetylcholine

Mediates neuromuscular transmission, parasympathetic arousal, and memory (memory loss in Alzheimer’s)

Dopamine

Involved in inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. insufficient [blank] in the basal ganglia is believed to underlie Parkinson’s disease; excessive activity at [] receptors has been linked to schizophrenia and Tourette’s disorder

Serotonin

Ordinarily inhibits behavior and is involved in the regulation of mood, hunger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain and in the bipolar and depressive disorders, schizophrenia, and OCD.

GABA

The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and is believed to be involved in anxiety, sleep, and seizures. Low levels of [] in the motor regions are associated with Huntington’s disease.

Occipital lobe

Contains the visual cortex

Damage to the occipital lobe

Damage in the occipital lobe can result in

Visual agnostic: which is an inability to recognize familiar objects

Color agnostic

Word blindness

So Tomas: blind spots

Lesions at the junction of the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes can produce prosopagnosia (inability to recognize familiar faces)

Papez’s Circuit

Proposed as a brain mechanism (circuit) that mediates the experience and expression of emotion. It includes the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior nuclei of the thalamus, and cingulate gyrus.

Parietal lobe

Contains the somatosensory cortex.

Damage to the parietal lobe

Apraxia: inability to perform skilled motor movements in the absence of impaired motor function

agnostic: inability to recognize one’s own neurological symptoms or other disorder

gerstmann’s syndrome: involves a combination of finger agnostic, right-left confusion, a graphic, and acalculia

Quantitative genetic methods

Used in behavioral genetic research to determine the net effect of genetic and environmental influences on various traits

Reticular activating system (RAS)

A network of nerve fibers involved in wakefulness, arousal, and consciousness.

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

Consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the body’s sense receptors to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. The [] governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary.

Spinal cord

Carries information between the brain and the PNS, coordinates activities of the left and right sides of the body, and controls simple reflexes that do not involve the brain. it consists of 31 segments, which are divided into 5 groups. Top to bottom:

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal.

Quadriplegia and paraplegia

Damage at the cervical level ordinarily result in:

Quadriplegia: loss of sensory and voluntary motor functioning in the arms and legs

Damage at the thoracic level causes paraplegia: loss of functioning in the legs

Temporal lobe

Contains the primary auditory cortex and wernicke’s area.

Damage to the temporal lobe and Wernicke’s aphasia

Damage can result in auditory agnostic, cortical deafness, impairments in the long-term memory, and/or receptive aphasia, aka []

Thalamus

“Relay station” for all of the senses except olfaction and is also involved in language and memory

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

Due to a thiamine deficiency that causes atrophy of neurons in certain areas of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus and is usually the result of chronic alcoholism.

Begins with Wernicke’s encephalopathy: characterized by mental confusion, abnormal eye movements, and ataxia.

Followed by Korsakoff’s syndrome: involves severe antegrade amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation