Psychology Test 2

What are the three steps to memory

Encoding, storage, retrieval

What is memory

The ability to store and retrieve information over time

What is encoding

the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

What is storage

the process of maintaining information in memory over time

What is retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

What are 3 types of encoding

semantic encoding, visual imagery encoding, organizational encoding

What is semantic encoding

the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory

what is visual imagery encoding

the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

What is the Method of Loci

a visual encoding mnemonic device where items to be remembered are visually associated with landmarks along a well-known path

What is Peg-word technique

a visual encoding mnemonic device where items to be remembered are visually paired with ordered items

what is organizational encoding

involves organizing information into groups or categories

what is sensory memory

a very brief retention of sensory information

what are the steps in storage

sensory input —> sensory memory —> short-term memory —> long term memory

what is short term memory

holds non-sensory information for more thana few seconds but less than a minute

explain the process of the Peterson and Peterson study

subjects hear three letters followed by a number, subjects immediately start counting backward by 3s, after a certain amount of time the experimenter stops the subject and asks for three letters

what did the peterson and peterson study show

memory is worse after longer delays

what did the miller study show

people can hold 7 plus or minus 2 digits when remembering

what is rehearsal

the process of keeping information in the shot-term memory by mentally repeating it

how do you keep information in short term memory longer

rehearsal

how do you increase the capacity of short term memory

chunking

what is chunking

combining small pieces of information into larger clusters/chunks

what are the two types of long-term memory

explicit and implicit memory

what are the two types of explicit memory

semantic and episodic memory

what are the two types of implicit memory

procedural memory and priming

what is explicit memory

when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences

what is semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

what is episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

what is implicit memory

past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them

what is priming

an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

what is procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice

describe the Tulving study

Subjects read a list of words and then had to complete word fragments. Subjects were faster and more successful for completing words that they had read

what is a retrieval cue

external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind

what is the encoding specificity principle

a retrieval cue is most effective when it helps recreate the way the information was encoded

what is physical context

the tendency for information to be better recalled when you’re in the same physical state for encoding and retrieval

what is mental context

the tendency for information to be better recalled when you’re in the same state for encoding and retrieval

what is decay

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

What did hermann ebbinghaus study

he learned a series of meaningless syllables and examined retention over time to look at ways to improve retention

what are the two types of amnesia

anterograde and retrograde

what is anterograde amnesia

the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long erm store

what are two examples of anterograde amnesia

H.M. and Clive Wearing

what is retrograde amnesia

the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation

what is consolidation

a process by which memories become more stabe in the brain

what is the role of the hippocampus in memory

consolidation

what is classical conditioning

when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

what is an example of classical conditioning

pavlov’s dogs

what are the four elements of classical conditioning

unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response

what is an unconditioned stimulus

something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction ni an organism

what is an unconditioned response

a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

what is a conditioned stimulus

a stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response in an organism

what is a conditioned response

a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

what are the principles of classical conditioning

extinction, spontaneous recovery, and prepardness

what is extinction

the gradual elimination of a learned response that occur when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented

what is spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

what is biological preparedness

a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others

what is operant conditioning

a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

what is operant conditioning the basis of

behaviorism

what is an example of operant conditioning

thorndike’s cats

what is the law of effect

when a behavior has a positive consequence, it is likely to be repeated and vice versa

who established the law of effect

thorndike

what is a reinforcer

any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

what is a punisher

any stimulus/event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

what is it when a stimulus is presented to increase the likelihood of a behavior

positive reinforcement

what is it when a stimulus is presented to decrease the likelihood of a behavior

positive punishment

what is it when a stimulus is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior

negative reinforcement

what is it when a stimulus is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior

negative punishment

what does extinction depend on in operant conditioning

the schedule of reinforcement

what are fixed-interval reinforcers

reinforcers that are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is madew

hat are variable-interval reinforcers

reinforcers of behavior based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement

what is fixed ratio reinforcement

reinforcement that delivers when a specific number of responses have been made

what is variable ratio reinforcement

the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses

what is shaping

learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

what are two models of emotion

paul ekman’s universal emotions and james russell’s circumplex model

which model of emotion is preferred and why

circumplex model because is captures similarity between emotions with similar arousal level, it represents emotional states on a continuum, and it does not focus on facial expression

during an emotional experience, what mobilizes energy in the body that arouses us

autonomic nervous system

what does the james-lange theory suggest about how we feel emotions

stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain

what does the cannon-bard theory suggest about how we feel emotions

a stimulus simultaneously triggers activity in the autonomic nervous system and emotional experience in the brain

what does the two-factor theory say about how we feel emotions

emotions are inferences about the causes of physiological arousal

what did the schachter and singer study do

drugged some participants to see how physical arousal and cognitive attribution produce emotion

what did the dutton and aron study do

interviewed people on a scary and non-scary bridge

where is emotion in the brain

the amygdala and frontal lobe

what doe the amygdala do for emotion

experience of fear

what does the frontal lobe do for emotion

engages in emotion regulation and appraisal

what is emotion regulation

strategies people use to regulate their emotions

what is appraisal

changing the way we think about an emotion-eliciting stimulus

what is the basic paradigm

unconditioned stimulus + conditioned response = unconditioned stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus

What did Small et al. study

activity in the orbitofrontal cortex as desires change

what did blood and zatorre study

subjective pleasantness of music correlates with orbitofrontal cortex activity

what is emotional expression

an observable sign of an emotional state

what is the universality hypothesis

motional epressions have the same meaning for everyone

what supports the theory of universality of emotional expression

cultures all over the world make the same facial expressions with the same emotions

what is against the universality of emotional expression

there is cultural variation in emotion expression intensity

what did Izard do

isolated 10 emotions, 7 of which are present in infancy

what is motivation

the purpose for or physical cause of an action

what is the instinct theory of motivation

motivation to behave in certain ways is due to evolutionary programming

what is the drive theory of motivation

organisms are born with certain psychological needs and a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied. when a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the organism returns to a state of homeostasis

what is homeostasis

the tendency of an organism to maintain stabilit across physiological systems in the body

what is a set point

the ideal level of some internal system

what is the hypothalamus

a midbrain structure which is part of the endocrine system and control the pituitary gland and human ‘instincts’

what is the humanistic theory of motivation

people have strong cognitive reasons to perform actions

what are criticisms of maslow’s hierarchy

ethnocentric: focused on individualistic cultures and not interdependent cultures, not supported by the data