PSC 041 Final Exam UC Davis

Alternative explanation

An explanation for a result that is not accounted for in a study.

Applied research

Research designed to help solve practical problems in a given field.

Association (correlation; relationship)

A covariance between or among variables such that a change in one variable coincides with or predicts a change in another variable.

Associative relationship

The type of relationship between variables in which the predictor variable is used to estimate or forecast (i.e., predict) the outcome variable.

Basic research

Research designed to contribute to the body of knowledge about a topic. Basic research may or may not have an obvious application.

Causation

A subcategory of association. In causation, one variable directly affects the other such that changes in one variable lead to or bring about (i.e., cause) changes in the other variable.

Claim

A statement, assertion, or conclusion arrived at after careful examination of a research question; it generalizes the results of a study to the larger population and other situations.

Conceptual replication (systematic replication)

A study in which the same hypothesis as the original study is tested using different methods.

Dependent variable

The variable in a causal relationship that is hypothesized to be influenced by the independent variable.

Direct replication (exact replication; literal replication)

Repeating a study by following the same procedures with a different group of study participants.

Falsifiable

Capable of being proven wrong or incorrect.

Hypothesis

An expected outcome of the research study; it predicts the answer to the research question.

Independent variable

The variable in a causal relationship that is hypothesized to influence the dependent variable; sometimes called the treatment variable. In experimental research, the independent variable is manipulated.

Outcome variable

The variable that expresses the result of an association.

Predictor variable

The variable in an association that is used to estimate or forecast a result or outcome.

Replication

Repeating a study that has already been completed.

Replication with extension

Replicating the original study and extending the findings by adding new variables to answer additional questions.

Research question

A testable question about one or more specific variables, asking about what is true now or what will happen in the future. A good research question clearly indicates the type of relationship and variables of interest, is specific enough for a single study, can be translated into a testable hypothesis, and is worth answering.

Results

A summary of findings or outcomes from collecting and analyzing data in a research study.

Value

A measure of a variable, such as the number, amount, or degree of that variable.

Variable

A condition or characteristic that is subject to change (i.e., capable of taking on different levels, categories, or values).

Animal Welfare Act of 1966

Regulates all nonhuman animal care in the United States.

APA Ethics Code

Provides 5 general principles and 10 standards to guide the roles and work of psychology with the goal of upholding human and animal rights.

APA Ethical Principles

General principles that serve as big picture goals to guide ethical conduct for psychologists. The APA Ethical Principles include: beneficence and nonmaleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, and respect for people's rights and dignity.

APA Ethical Standards

Ten specific guidelines that must be followed to ensure ethical conduct for psychologists. Standards important to research include those that: ensure privacy and confidentiality, participant's right to withdraw, informed consent, deception and debriefing, institutional review boards, and protection for nonhuman animals.

Belmont Report

Contains ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. Consists of three core principles: respect for persons, beneficence, justice.

Beneficence

Part of the Belmont Report that mandates researchers to minimize harm and maximize benefits for research participants.

Beneficence and nonmaleficence

APA Ethical Principle that mandates protection from harm, based on the welfare and rights of humans and the welfare of animals.

Conflict of Interest

A type of fraud that involves not disclosing when a researcher's perspective or situation may influence the outcome of a study.

Debriefing

Following a study's completion, researchers provide participants correct information about the study's purpose and rationale. Included in the APA Ethical Standards.

Deception

When the information initially provided to participants in a research study is incomplete or inaccurate in order to prevent participants from knowing the true purpose of the study. Included in the APA Ethical Standards.

Ethics

Set of principles agreed upon by a group.

Fabrication

A type of fraud that involves making up dating or results and reporting them.

Falsification

A type of fraud that involves altering research materials, processes, or results so the research recorded or presented is not a true representation of the research.

Fidelity and responsibility

APA Ethical Principle that suggests that psychologists build trust, conduct their business professionally, cooperate with others, and provide responsible services.

Fraud

The misinterpretation of facts, or lying.

Informed consent

Process of providing individuals enough information about participation in a research study prior to the beginning of that study in order to allow them to make a voluntary choice to participate. Included in the APA Ethical Standards.

Informed consent form

A factual document that contains the required informed consent information and may require a participant's signature.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs)

Independent groups that review nonhuman animal research to ensure that the animals are being treated humanely.

Institutional review boards (IRBs)

Independent groups that review human subject research to ensure Ethical Standards are met. Included in the APA Ethical Standards.

Integrity

APA Ethical Principle that focuses on the importance of accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the work of psychologists.

Intellectual property rights

Creations of the mind that are considered a product (i.e., property) of an individual.

Justice

Part of the Belmont Report and APA Ethical Principles that instructs researchers to balance selection of participants and beneficiaries of research.

Morality

Personal principles of right and wrong.

Plagiarism

Use of the words, ideas, processes, or results of others without properly citing the source.

Privacy and confidentiality

The practice of not disclosing personal or identifying information about a participant beyond what is necessary for carrying out the study. Included in the APA Ethical Standards.

Reduction

One of three strategies recommended in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals for ethical decision making in animal research. Researchers should consider methods that minimize the number of animals used in the research while maximizing the information acquired.

Refinement

One of three strategies recommended in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals for ethical decision making in animal research. Researchers should use procedures that minimize harm and enhance the well-being of the animals used in research.

Replacement

One of three strategies recommended in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals for ethical decision making in animal research. Researchers should consider methods that avoid using vertebrate animals.

Replicability

There are enough details and transparency in all steps of the research process that other researchers could replicate the study on their own.

Respect for people's rights and dignity

APA Ethical Principle that emphasizes respect, dignity, and worth of individuals, independent of their differences, guaranteeing privacy and confidentiality.

Respect for Persons

Part of the Belmont Report that dictates researchers must treat individuals as autonomous agents and provide protection for those with diminished autonomy.

Right to withdraw

Even after individuals agree to participate in research, they may change their minds and opt out of the project at any point with no negative consequences. Included in the APA Ethical Standards.

Risk-benefit analysis

The procedure an institutional review board uses for deciding if the potential harm of a research study outweighs the benefits of the research outcome.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When participants try to guess the true purpose of a study, they may change their response to what they think should be the answer.

Social desirability

When participants try to guess the true purpose of a study, they may change their response to avoid sharing something they feel may make them look bad.

Three Rs

Three strategies for making ethical decisions regarding animal research including replacement, refinement, and reduction.

Abstract

Short summary of a research study typically found at the beginning of a journal article.

Academic journal

A journal that publishes articles that have been reviewed and accepted by experts on the article topic.

Article analysis

An examination of an article that focuses on the quality of the research question being addressed, the hypothesis, the method, forms of data analysis, and the authors' interpretation of the results.

Citations

Appear in the body of a paper and point the reader to the references (also known as in-text citations).

Discussion section

Section of a research article that puts the study in context of what is already known from previous research and typically includes limitations, contributions, and implications.

Implications

Part of the research conclusions that describe how the study results are relevant. Found in the Discussion section.

Introduction

First part of a research article that explains the rationale for the study and includes the study hypothesis or research question.

Literature review

The process of reading and critically synthesizing what is already known (what has been written) about a topic.

Meta-analysis

A quantitative synthesis of a body of research on a topic that combines the results of previously published studies.

Method section

Section of a research article that explains how the authors conducted the study; this typically includes a description of the participants, the manipulated variable(s), the measured variable(s), and the procedures for the study.

Narrative review article

An article that provides a critical synthesis of published empirical articles.

Primary source

The original (first) source of information regarding a specific study, written by the same researchers who conducted the study.

References

Listed at the end of a scholarly work and allow you to locate the original source. Typically include the author names, year of publication, article title, journal name, journal volume, and page numbers.

Research or empirical article

An article that describes the method and results of a study.

Result section

Section of a research article that presents the findings from study.

Scholar

Someone with an advanced degree who has rigorous training in research methodology and a particular specialty area.

Scholarly source

A source (article, chapter, book) that was written by an expert or scholar, has been reviewed by other experts on the topic, and includes scientific evidence.

Secondary source

Discusses evidence that has already been published elsewhere and does not include new research evidence.

Theoretical article

An article that describes a theory or model, the accumulation of evidence that supports that theory or model, and any part of the theory or model for which there is insufficient evidence.

Archival measures

Measures in which the researcher consults official records to measure status variables.

Associative relationship

A relation such that a change in one variable predicts a change in another variable.

Case study method

A type of descriptive research that involves a detailed and in-depth study of one or a few individuals.

Causal relationship

A relation such that a change in one variable brings about a change in another variable.

Claim

In research, an assertion based on any given study's findings. Different kinds of claims tend to have different levels of external validity.

Confounds

Also known as plausible alternative variables; Something else that changes in an experimental study along with the independent variable.

Construct validity

The degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a concept, trait, or other theoretical entity.

Control condition

In an experiment, the condition to which participants are exposed in which no manipulation of a variable takes place.

Correlation

A correspondence or relationship between variables such that a change in one variable coexists with a change in the other variable.

Correlational research

Research design in which the relationships between predictor and outcome variables are observed without any control over the conditions in which these relationships occur.

Covariance

The degree to which two variables vary together (i.e., they are related, associated, or correlated).

Dependent variable

The measured variable in an experimental research design that is believed to be dependent on, or influenced by, the independent variable.

Descriptive research

Research design that assesses frequencies, averages, and other measures of central tendency of variables.

Elimination of alternative explanations

Ascertaining that no other variable is responsible for the outcome found in a study; that is, no variable other than the independent variable produced the change in the dependent variable.

Experimental condition

In an experiment, the condition to which participants are exposed in which the variable of interest is manipulated; also called the treatment condition.

Experimental research

Research design in which an independent variable is manipulated and a dependent variable is measured, while other variables are held constant. Random assignment must be used to ensure all groups begin as equal.

External validity

The degree to which the results of research can be generalized beyond the sample to other individuals, situations, and time periods.

Independent variable

The manipulated variable in an experimental design that is believed to influence the dependent variable.

Internal validity

The degree to which an experiment is free from flaws in its internal structure; the degree to which its methodology meets the criteria for establishing causality.

Limitations

Section in a journal article that often discusses validity issues present within the study.

Manipulate

To intentionally change (a variable).

Measure

To assess the value of the variable using an appropriate method (i.e., observation, self-report, physiological monitoring, or archival research).

Observational measures (also known as behavioral measures)

Measures in which the behavior of participants is observed.

Observational method

A type of descriptive research that involves the close observation and documentation of a behavior or phenomena. Includes naturalistic observations and laboratory observations.