secreted by the kidneys; helps regulate BP by increasing angiotensin II and aldosterone production
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Glucocorticoids
o Help to provide energy for cells by stimulating the increased use of lipids and proteins o Secretes cortisol
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cortisol
▪ Reduce inflammation and break down proteins and lipids, making them available as energy sources to other tissues
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Adrenal Androgens
o Stimulate the development of male secondary sex characteristics o Secreted by the testes (males) o Influence sex drive of females
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Endocrine part of the pancreas
consist of pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
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Pancreatic islets
dispersed throughout the exocrine portion of the pancreas
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three cell types of the pancreas
▪ Alpha cells ▪ Beta cells ▪ Delta cells These three^ regulate blood levels of glucose
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Alpha cells
secrete glucagon
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Beta cells
secrete insulin
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Delta cells
secrete somatostatin
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Acidosis
blood glucose levels are very low; reduces the pH of body fluids below normal
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Insulin
➢ Secreted by beta cells in response to elevated blood glucose levels
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Two signals of insulin secretion
o Low blood glucose levels o Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system
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Major target tissues for insulin
liver, adipose tissue, muscles, satiety center
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Satiety center
area of the hypothalamus that controls hunger
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Diabetes mellitus
body’s inability to regulate blood glucose levels within the normal range
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Type 1 diabetes
too little insulin
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Type 2 diabetes
either too few insulin receptors on target cells or defective receptors on target cells
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Hyperglycemia
high blood glucose levels
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Glucagon
➢ Released from the alpha cells when blood glucose levels are low ➢ Binds to membrane-bound receptors primarily in the liver o Glycogen stored in the liver is converted to glucose
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Somatostatin
➢ Released by delta cells in response to food intake ➢ Inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon ➢ Inhibits gastric tract activity
insulin responses: Increases glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis; increases uptake of amino acids glucagon responses: has little effect
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target tissue: liver
insulin responses: increases glycogen synthesis; increases use of glucose for energy glucagon responses: causes rapid increase in breakdown of glycogen to glucose and release of glucose into the blood; increases the formation of glucose from amino acids and from lipids; increases metabolism of fatty acids
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target tissue: adipose cells
insulin responses: Increases glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis, lipid synthesis glucagon responses: High concentrations cause breakdown of lipids
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target tissue: nervous system
insulin responses: Has little effect except to increase glucose uptake in the satiety center glucagon responses: Has no effect
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Testes
secretes testosterone o Regulates the production of sperm cells and development and maintenance of male reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics
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Ovaries
secrets estrogen and progesterone o Control the female reproductive cycle, prepare the mammary glands for lactation, maintain pregnancy o Development of female reproductive organs and female secondary sexual characteristics
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luteinizing hormone
a gonadotropic hormone that is secreted by the anterior pituitary; stimulates ovulation in female mammals and stimulates androgen release in male mammals
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follicle-stimulating hormone
a gonadotropic hormone that is secreted by the anterior pituitary and stimulates growth of Graafian follicles in female mammals
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Thymus
➢ Upper part of the thoracic cavity ➢ Function of the immune system ➢ Secretes thymosin
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thymosin
Aids the development of WBC called T cells
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T cells
help protect the body against infection by foreign organisms
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Pineal Gland
➢ Small pinecone-shaped structure located superior and posterior to the thalamus of the brain ➢ Produces melatonin
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melatonin
o Inhibit the reproductive hypothalamic-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone ▪ Prevents secretion of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary o Regulate onset of puberty by acting on the hypothalamus
target tissue: most tissues response: increases gene expression, breakdown of lipids and release of fatty acids from cells; increase blood glucose levels
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thyroid-stimulating hormone
target tissue: thyroid gland response: increases T3 and T4 secretion
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adrenocorticotropic hormone
target tissue: adrenal cortex response: increases secretion of glucocorticoid hormones such as cortisol; increases skin pigmentation at high concentrations
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melanocyte-stimulating hormone
target tissue: melanocytes in skin response: increases melanin production in melanocytes
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luteinizing hormone
target tissue: ovary in females, testis in males response: promotes ovulation and progesterone production in ovary; promotes synthesis and support for sperm cell production in testis
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follicle-stimulating hormone
target tissues: follicles in ovary; seminiferous tubules in testis response: promotes follicle maturation and estrogen secretion in ovary; promotes sperm cell production in testis
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prolactin
target tissues: ovary and mammary glands in females; testis in males response: stimulates milk production and prolongs progesterone secretion following ovulation and during pregnancy in women; increases sensitivity to LH in males
target tissues: most cells of the body responses: increase metabolic rate, essential for normal process of growth and maturation
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calcitonin
target tissues: primarily bone responses: decreases rate of bone breakdown; prevents large increase in blood Ca2+ levels following a meal
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hormones of the parathyroid gland
parathyroid hormone
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parathyroid hormone
target tissues: bone, kidney responses: increases rate of bone breakdown by osteoclasts; increases vitamin D synthesis, essential for maintenance of normal blood Ca levels
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hormones of the adrenal medulla
epinephrine and norepinephrine
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epinephrine and norepinephrine
target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, adipocytes responses: increases cardiac output; increases blood flow to skeletal muscles and heart; increase of glucose and fatty acids into blood; prepares body for physical activity
target tissues: kidneys; to lesser degree, intestine and sweat glands responses: increase rate of sodium transport in the body; increase rate of potassium excretion; secondarily favor water retention
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glucocorticoids (cortisol)
target tissues: most tissues (liver, fat, skeletal muscle, immune tissues) responses: increases lipid and protein breakdown; increase glucose synthesis from amino acids; increase blood nutrient levels; inhibit inflammation and immune response
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adrenal androgens
target tissues: most tissues responses: insignificant in males; increase female sexual drivel growth of pubic hair and axillary hair
Studied by 3 people
