UGS, America Through Baseball: Exam 2

Women in 19th Century

- Could not vote, therefore did not have full rights of citizenship

- First wave feminism -> Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

- Leaders: Susan B. Anthony, Victoria Woodhull, etc.

Why did women not participate in baseball?

Fear that sports would harm women's health and prevent childbearing. Instead, they were expected to support men.

Women saw opportunities to play ___________ & ____________.

Tennis, Cycling

What led to multiple bans on women's sports?

Injuries

How early did women play college baseball?

1866

1898

Lizzie Arlington signed a Minor League contract

1920

19th Amendment is passed

1931

Jackie Mitchell pitched for AA Chattanooga

What is Jackie Mitchell famous for?

Striking out Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig at an exhibition game in 1931.

What happened after Jackie Mitchell pitched at the exhibition game?

Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis voided her contract and stated baseball was "too strenuous" for women.

When did Mitchell retire?

1937, declined to participate in AAGPBL

All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL)

Created by Cubs owner Philip Wrigley in 1943

How many teams did they initially have? What was the total amount over the history?

4 teams, 15 teams

When did AAGPBL end?

1954

What was the record for attendance for AAGPBL?

10,000, July 4 double-header, 1946

1950s

Return to "Cult of Domesticity"

AAGPBL Rules

- Women expected to maintain feminine appearance

- Could not smoke or drink, unless limited at after-game meal

- Baseball skirts 6 inches above the knee minimum

- No obscene languages

What AAGPBL season peaked with attendance?

Over 90,000 in 1948

What contributed to the folding of the AAGPBL league?

Return of MLB players after WW2

Could girls play baseball in school in early 1900s?

True

Bloomer Girls

- Played into the 1920s

- 3/4 length pants to protest against society

- Popular barnstorming attraction

When was softball invented?

1887

Who created the rules for "girls baseball" or softball?

Gladys Palmer, 1926

Amateur Softball Association

1933

Was softball always seen just for women?

False

How many softball teams in the U.S. by 1936?

92,545

How many people did softball draw in 1939?

60 million (more than men!)

Title IX

- Educational Amendments of 1972

- No person, on the basis of sex, should be excluded under any educational program or activity (SPORTS NOT MENTIONED)

- Multiple people opposed Title IX

Participation in women's high school sports

- 1972: under 4%

- 2019: 43%

Participation in women's college sports

- 1972: 30,000

- 2021: 215,000

When were girls allowed to play in Little League?

1974

Kathryn Johnston

- Posed as a boy in 1950

- Tubby Rule: formally prohibit girls from being in the league

Maria Pepe

- Played in Hoboken, New Jersey in 1972

- Quit after League threatened to remove charter

- National Organization for Women (NOW) filed lawsuit on her behalf

- Removed Tubby Rule

Mo'ne Davis

- Pitched a shutout

- Played softball at Hampton University

- Now exploring a broadcasting degree

Carolyn King

- Little League again threatened to removed charter

- Ypsilanti mayor funded the local team to allow them to proceed

- Removed charter in 1974 and she could continue playing

Ila Borders

- Pitched for South California College

- First woman to throw for a complete college baseball game

- Entered MLB draft in 1997, but not drafted

- Pitched in Independent Leagues until 2000

Women's National Team

2004, Competes in Women's World Cup Tournament

1875

Women were paid to play baseball, first all professional women's team

Baseball was built on...

Muscular Christianity & military preparation

American Legion

1919, founded on Veterans Organization

Youth Baseball

1925, focuses on importance on "sportsmanship, good health, and active citizenship"

Little League

Founded in 1939 in Williamsport, Pennsylvania

Little League Participation

- 1939: 45

- 1949: 11,800

- 1958: 334,300

- 1964: 1,066,600

- 2019: over 2 million

- 2023: 16.7 million

Prohibition of girls in Little League

1950-1974

President LBJ

- Signed Congressional Charter of Federal Incorporation in 1964

- "Baseball develops boys into manhood"

Hegemonic Masculinity

Refers to the social ascendancy of a particular version or model of masculinity that defines what it means to be a man

Features of Hegemonic Masculinity

- Physical force and control

- Occupational achievement

- Patriarchy

- Romantic Frontiersmanship

- Heterosexuality

Which players came out after retirement?

Glenn Burke and Billy Bean

Locker room/Clubhouse

- "Don't ask, don't tell"

- Language norms associate weakness with femininity or gay

- Normalize objectifying women

Jose Canseco

- "Road beef"

- Open about steroid use

- Published Juice (2005) that claimed widespread steroid use in MLB

- Claimed many people cheated on their wives or had sexual relationships

Development of Organized Baseball and Era of Reconstruction

- All Black teams formed separately

- No rule prohibiting black players from playing in the MLB

Cuban Giants

- Organized in 1885 on Long Island

- Cuban Giants

Negro National League

Founded in 1920 by Rube Foster in Kansas City

Are the Negro's League statistics included in MLB?

True

When was the first woman elected to the HOF?

Effa Manley (2006) for impact in Negro Leagues (co-owned Newark Eagles, invested time/money in players)

When did the NNL fold?

1933

Women who played in the NNL

Mamie "Peanut" Johnson, Connie Morgan, and Toni Stone

Where did majority non-white players come from in 1920s-1930s?

Cuba

Wendell Smith

- Hired by Pittsburgh Courier in 1937

- In 1945, arranged tryouts for black players in Pirates, Braves, Red Sox

- Hired by Brooklyn Dodgers to travel with Jackie Robinson

Lester Rodney

Communist who called segregation in baseball "un-American"

Jackie Robinson

- First African American player in MLB, Dodgers (1947)

- Played with Montreal Royals (1946)

- Played for Kansas City Monarchs (1945)

- Thought to be perfect as he was "educated, had military experience, grew up in White neighborhoods"

Jackie Robinson Accomplishments

- Rookie OTY: 1947

- Named after Robinson in 1987

- Won NL MVP award in 1949

- Led Dodgers to 1955 World Series Victory

What was conflicting about Robinson and the MLB?

Led to the decline of the Negro Leagues

When was the NNL Baseball Museum founded?

1990 in Kansas City

How many NNL members are in the National Baseball HOF?

37

Are any majority owners of MLB teams black?

No

Honoring Jackie Robinson

- Retired number (42) in 1997

- April 15, 2004, Jackie Robinson Day

Who was the last MLB team to integrate?

Boston Red Sox

Who was MLB's second black player?

Larry Doby, Cleveland Indians (AL)

Larry Doby

- Named to seven all-stars teams

- First black player to win World Series in 1948

- Cleveland Indians (AL)

- Elected by Veteran's Committee to HOF in 1998

When did baseball first emerge in Cuba?

1860, similar to Japan

How was baseball seen in Cuba?

A symbol of resistance (against Spain) and inclusion (included African descendants and women)

All Cubans

- Professional team

- Toured U.S. from 1899-1905

Which teams hired Cuban players in the 1940s?

Washington Senators, Cincinnati Reds, Brooklyn Dodgers, New York Giants

Havana Sugar Kings

- 1946-1960

- Cincinnati Reds AAA affiliate (1954-1960)

After the introduction of Latin players in 1950s and 1960s, what style of baseball was compared to this?

"Inside baseball" during the Dead Ball Era

Stereotypes of Latin Players

- Selfish, showboats, hot-tempered

- Enforced after fight between Juan Marichal and Johnny Roseboro in 1965

Where do a majority of Latin players come from?

1st: Dominican Republic (108)

2nd: Venezuela (58)

Roberto Clemente

- Greatest Latin-born player

- Puerto Rican

- 18 seasons for Pittsburgh

- Passed in a plane crash

- Elected to HOF in 1973

- Referred to as "Bob" on baseball cards

Roberto Clemente Day

- September 15, 2013

- Follows Jackie Robinson and Lou Gehrig

- Roberto Clemente Award, presents extraordinary character and community involvement

- Talks about retiring number

Fidel Castro & Baseball

- Used baseball as a political symbol

Cuban Players & National Team

- Dominated international competitions from 1960-1990

- More than 80 players defected from Cuba to the US in 1990s

Yasiel Puig

- Signed a deal with Dodgers in 2012

- At least five attempts to defect

- Came through a third country to be a free agent

Jose Fernandez

- Four attempts to defect in U.S.

- Debuted in Miami Marlins (2013)

- Died in a boating accident

Percentages of MLB players with Latin Heritage

- 1991: 14%

- 2023: 30.2%

Baseball Academies

- Growth in 1970s and 1980s

- Notorious for poor conditions

- Dodgers opened Campo Las Palmas in 1987

- Now, all MLB teams have academies

Expansion of MLB

- Montreal (1969), now in Washington D.C.

- Toronto (1977)

MLB International

- Tier 1 (most established traditions) to Tier 3 minimal exposure (Germany, South Africa)

- Offices: Beijing, London, Mexico City, New Dehli, Seoul, and Tokyo

- Games played outside U.S./Canada as of 1996

Where has the MLB had opening series?

Mexico, Japan, and South Korea

World Baseball Classic

- Founded in 2006

- 16-Team Tournament

- Elimination games in U.S.

- Japan defeated Cuba in inaugural championship

2023 World Baseball Classic

- Delayed by COVID in 2021

- Expanded to 20 teams

- USA vs. Japan in final

- Ohtani struck out Mike Trout

Ages to enroll in academies or sign to MLB (Latin American)

- Sign at 16 year old

- Younger may enroll in academies

Olivia Pitchardo

Currently playing D1 baseball at Brown University

Initial Players' Union

- 1890

- Response to the Reserve Clause

- Only lasted one season

Farm System (1920s) vs. Now

Buying teams to bypass contract restrictions. Now, we have Minor League Teams

1922

Supreme Court ruled MLB to be exempt from Anti-Trust Laws (monopoly)

Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA)

1954

Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale

- Pitching duo of mid-1960s

- Held together to be signed together

- Viewed negatively by media

- Compared themselves as "indentured servants"

- Did not disrupt the Reserve Clause

Marvin Miller

- Head of MLBPA in 1966

- Negotiated the first "basic agreement" between MLB and MLBPA in 1968

- Increase minimum salary to $10,000

- HOF inducted for contributions

Curt Flood

- Debuted with Cincinnati (1956)

- Trouble with discrimination in baseball

- Center Fielder for St. Louis in 1960s