Eduqas Media Studies Key Terms

Action code

Something that happens in the narrative that tells the audience that some action will follow, for example in a scene from a soap opera, a couple are intimate in a bedroom and the camera shows the audience the husband’s car pulling up at the front of the house

Active audience

Audiences actively engage in selecting media products to consume and interpreting their meanings

Anchorage

The worlds that accompany an image (still or moving) contribute to the meaning association with that image. If the caption or voice-over is changed then so may the way in which the audience interprets the image. An image with an anchor is a closed text; the audience are given a preferred reading. A text without an anchor is an open text as the audience can interpret it as they wish.

The same image of a school in a local newspaper could include a negative or positive headline, which may change the way in which the same image is viewed by the reader.

Appeal

The way in which products attract and interest an audience, e.g.m through the use of stars, familiar genre conventions etc.

Arc of transformation

The emotional changes a character goes through in the process of the narrative. The events in the story mean that they will ‘transform’ by the end of the story

Aspirational

In terms of a media text, one that encourages the audience to want more money, up-market consumer items and a higher social position

Attract

How media producers create appeal to audiences to encourage them to consume the products

Audience categorisation

How media producers group audiences (e.g. by age, gender, ethnicity) to target their products

Audience consumption

The way in which audiences engage with media products (e.g., viewing a TV programme, playing a video game, reading a blog or magazine). Methods of consumption have changed significantly due to the development of digital technologies

Audience interpretation

The way in which audiences ‘read’ the meanings in, and make sense of, media products

Audience positioning

The way in which media products place audiences (literally or metaphorically) in relation to a particular point of view. For example, audiences may be positioned with a articular character or positioned to adopt a specific ideological perspective

Audience response

How audiences react to media products, e.g, by accepting the intended meanings (preferred reading)

Audience segmentation

Where a target audience is divided up due to the diversity and range of programmes and channels. This makes it difficult for one programme to attract a large target audience

Audio

How sound is used to communicate meaning - voice-over, dialogue, music, SFX, etc

Avatar

A player’s represntation of themselves within a game

Back Story

Part of the narrative which may be the experiences of a character or the circumstances of an event that occur before the action or narrative of a media text. It is a device that gives the audience more information and makes the main story more credible

Binary Opposites

Where texts incorporate examples of opposite values, for example, good vs evil, villain vs hero. These can be apparent in the characters, narrative, or themes

Brand Identity

The association the audience make with the brand, for example, Chanel or Nike, built up over time and reinforced by the advertising campaigns and their placement

Broadsheet

A larger newspaper that publishes more serious news, for example, The Daily Telegraph has maintained its broadsheet format

Camera angles

The angle of the camera in relation to the subject. For example, a high angle shot (shot of a character from above) may make them appear more vulnerable

Camera shots

The type of shot and framing in relation to the subject, for example, close-up shots are often used to express emotion

Caption

Words that accompany an image that help to explain its meaning

Channel identity

That which makes the channel recognisable to audiences and different from any other channel. Presents, stars, programme genres, and specific programmes all contribute to a channels identity

Circulation

The dissemination of media products to audiences/users - the method will depend on the media form e.g., circulation of print magazines, broadcast of television programmes etc

Connotation

The suggested meanings attached to a sign, e.g., the red car in the advert suggests speed and power

Conventions

What the audience expects to see in a particular media text, for example the conventions of science fiction films may include: alien, scientists, other worlds, gadgets, representations or good and evil, etc. Useful headings to discuss conventions are: characters, setting, iconography, narrative, technical codes, and representation

Convergence

The coming together or previously separate media industries and/or platforms; often the result of advances in technology whereby one device or platform contains a range of different features. The mobile phone, for example, allows the user to download and listen to music, view videos, tweet artists, etc. All this can be done through one portable device

Cover lines

These suggest the content to the reader and often contain teasers and rhetorical questions. These relate to the genre of the magazine

Cross-platform marketing

In media terms, a text that is distributed and exhibited across a range of media formats or platforms. This may include film, television, print, radio, and the Internet

Cultural capital

The media tastes and preferences of an audience, traditionally inked to social class/background

Demographic category

A group in which consumers are places according to their age, sex, income, profession, etc. The categories range from A to E where categories A and B are the wealthiest and more influential members of society

Denotation

The literal meaning of a sign, e.g., the car in the advert is red

Diegetic sound

Sound that comes from the fictional world, for example the sound of a gun firing, the cereal being poured into the bowl in an advert, etc

Discourse

The topics, language, and meanings or values being them within a media text. The discourse of lifestyle magazines, for example, tends to revolve around body image and narcissism

Distribution

The methods by which media products are delivered to audiences, including the marketing campaign. These methods will depend upon the product (for example, distribution companies in the film industry organise the release of the films, as well as heir promotion)

Diversification

Where media organisations who have specialised in producing media products in one form move into producing content across a range of forms

Editing

The way in which the shots move from one to the other (transitions), e.g., fade, cut, etc. Fast cutting may increase the pace and therefore the tension of the text, for example

Encoding and decoding

Media producers encode messages and meanings in products that are decoded, or interpreted, by audiences

Enigma code

A narrative device which increases tension and audience interest by only releasing bits of information, for example, teasers in a film trailer or narrative strands that are set up at the beginning of a drama/film that make the audience ask questions; part of a restricted narrative

Equilibrium

In relation to narrative, a state of balance or stability (in Todorov’s theory the equilibrium is disrupted and ultimately restored

Ethnocentric

A belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic group or culture. For example, a newspaper will be more concerned to cover stories that are closely related to the reader and their concerns. Tabloid and local papers only tend to cover international news stories if they can relate them specifically to their readers

Ethos

The beliefs, values, and customs or, for example media organisations. In television, for example, what the channel believes in and what it sees as its role. The ethos is usually set out in the channel’s charter

Fan

An enthusiast of aficionado of a particular media form or product

Feature

In magazine terms, the main, or one of the main, stories in an edition. Features are generally located in the middle of the magazine, and cover more than one or two pages

Flexi narrative

A more complex narrative structure with layers of interweaving story lines. This challenges the audience and keeps them watching

Four Cs

This stands for Cross Cultural Consumer Characteristic and was a way of categorising consumers into groups through their motivational needs. The main groups were Mainstreamers, Aspiresers, Explorers, Succeeders, and Reformers

Franchise

An entire series of, for example, a film including the origional film and all those that follow

Gate keepers

The people responsible for deciding the most appropriate stories to appear in newspapers. They may be the owner, editor, or senior journalists. They will only let the stories most appropriate for the ideology of the paper ‘through the gate’

Genre

Media texts can often be grouped into genres that all share similar conventions. Science fiction is a genre, as are teenage magazines, etc

Global

Worldwide - e.g., a media product with global reach is a product that is distributed around the world

Hegemony

This derives from the theory of cultural hegemony by Antonio Gramsci. Hegemony is the dominance of one group over another, often supported by legitimating norms and ideas. For example, the dominant social position in society is taken by men and the subordinate one by women

Horizontal integration

Where a media conglomerate is made up of different companies that produce and sell similar products, often as a result of mergers. For example, a company with interests in film, TV, magazines, newspapers, etc

House style

The aspects that make a magazine recognisable to its readers every issue. The house style is established through the choice of colour, he layout and design, the font style, the content, and the general ‘look’ of the publication

Hybrid genre

Media texts that incorporate elements of more than one genre and are therefore more difficult to classify are genre hybrids. Dr Who, for example, is a science fiction/fantasy television drama

Hypodermic needle model

Generally acknowledged to be an out of date media effects theory which suggests that an audience will have a mass response to a media text. The idea is that the media product injects an idea into the mind of an audience who are assumed to be passible and as a result will all respond the same way

Iconography

The props, costumes, objects, and backgrounds associated with a particular genre; for example, in a police series you would expect to see, uniforms, blue flashing lights, scene of crime tape, and police radios

Ideology

A set of messages, values, and beliefs that may be encoded into media products

Independent film

A film made outside of the financial and artistic control of a large mainstream film company. A truly independent film will be privately conceived and funded. However, few films made are really ‘independent’. This more commonly refers to a film that is made by a smaller film company on a low budget

Independent record label

A record label that operates without the funding of, and that is not necessarily liked to, a major record label

Intellectual property

A legal concept which refers to creations of the mind for which the owner’s rights are recognised. These rights cover such intangible assets as music, literary, and artistic woks; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs

Interactive audience

The ways in which audiences can become actively involved with a product, for example by posting a response to a blog or live tweeting during a television progreamme

Intertextual

Where one media text makes reference to aspects of another text within it. For example, referencing a scene from a film in a television advertisement. Audiences enjoy recognising intertextual references

Intertextuality

Where one media product intertextually references another

Layout and design

The way in which a page has been designed to attract the target audience. This includes the font styles used, the positioning of text and images, and the use of colour

Linear narrative

Where the narrative unfolds in chronological order from beginning to end

Ludology

The study of games and those who play them, relevant to video games

Masculinity

The perceived characteristics generally considered to define what it is to be a man. These can change according to sociological and cultural variations

Mass audience

The traditional idea of the audience as one large, homogenous group

Media conglomerate

A company that owns other companies across a range of media platforms. This increases their domination of the market and their ability to distribute and exhibit their product

Media forms

Types of media products, for example television, newspapers, advertising

Media language

The specific elements of a media product that communicate meanings to audiences, e.g., visual codes, audio codes, technical codes, language

Media platform

The range of different ways of communicating with an audience, for example newspapers, the Internet, and television

Mediation

The way in which a media text is constructed in order to represent a version of reality; constructed through selection, organisation, and focus

Mise-en-scene

In analysis of moving image products, how the combination of images in the frame creates meaning; how individual shots in a film of photograph have been composed

Misrepresentation

Certain social groups (usually minority groups) may be represented in a way that is inappropriate and not based on reality

MMORPG

Massively multi-player online role-playing game

Mode of address

The way in which media text ‘speaks to’ its target audience. For example, teenage magazine have a chatty informal mode of address; the news has a more formal mode of address

Narrative

The ‘story’ that is told by the media text. All media texts, not just fictional texts, have a narrative. For example, magazines have a clear beginning, middle, and end. Most narratives are linear and follow a specific structure (see Todorov)

News agenda

The list of stories that may appear in a particular paper. The items of the news agenda will reflect the style and ethos of the paper

Niche audience

A relatively small audience with specialised interests, tastes, and backgrounds

Non-diegetic sound

Sound that comes from outside the dictional world, for example a voiceover, romantic mood music, etc

Non-linear narrative

Here the narrative manipulates time and space. It may begin in the middle and then include flashbacks and other narrative devices

Open world

In an open world computer game the player can move freely through the virtual world and is not restricted by levels and other barriers to free roaming

Opinion leaders

People in society who may affect the way in which others interpret a particular media text. With regard to advertising, this may be a celebrity or other endorser recommending a product

Passive audience

The idea (now widely regarded as outdated) that audiences do not actively engage with media products, but passively consume and accept he messages the producers communicate

Patriarchal culture

A society or culture that is male dominated

Pick and mix theory

Suggested by British sociologist and media theory. He asserted the autonomy of the audience and challenged the notion that audiences are immediately affected by what they read. He maintains that audiences are more sophisticated that this and will select aspects of the media texts that best suit their needs and ignore the rest

Plurality

In media context, this refers to a range of content to suit many people

Political bias

Where a newspaper may show support for a political party through its choice of stories, style of coverage, cartoons, etc. It may be suitable and implicit or explicit as in the case f the tabloid newspapers on election day

Privileged spectator position

Where the camera places the audience in a superior position within the narrative. The audience can then anticipate what will follow

Production

The process by which media products are constructed

Products

Media texts, including television programmes, magazines, video games, newspapers etc, as well as online, social and, participatory platforms

Public service broadcaster

A radio and television broadcaster that is financed by public money (e.g., the licence fee in the UK) and is seen to offer a public service b catering for a range of audiences and providing information, as well as entertainment

Realism

A style of presentation that claims to portray ‘real life’ accurately and authentically

Regulator

A person or body that supervises a particular industry

Repertoire of elements

Key features that distinguish one genre from another

Representation

The way in which key groups or aspects of society are presented by the media, e.g., gender, race, age, the family, etc. Literally, a re-representation of constructed version of that which is shown

Selection and combination

Media producers actively choose elements of media language and place them alongside others to create specific representations or versions of reality

Sexual objectification

The practice of regarding a person as an object to be viewed only in terms of their sexual appeal and with no consideration on any other aspect of their character or personality

Sign/code

Something which communicates meaning, e.g., colours, sounds. The meaning of the sign changes according to the context, e.g., the colour red can mean passion, love, danger, or speed depending on how and where it is used