exam 1

a. cognitive stage

Understanding 'what to do' occurs in what stage of motor learning?

a. Cognitive stage
b. Autonomous stage
c. Associative stage

b. errors

As the amount of practice increases, __________ decrease(s) over time, as the learner progresses through the stages of motor learning.

a. Ability to multitask
b. Errors
c. Performance consistency

a. procedural learning and memory

Mr. U is an 80-year-old male with advanced Alzheimer's disease and cognitive deficits in the area of memory for facts and events. Despite these deficits, he still has potential for motor learning due to neural pathways involved in ...?

a. Procedural learning and memory
b. Declarative learning and memory

c. an active problem-solving event for the learner

To enhance motor learning, practice is BEST described as ...
a. an active event for the learner
b. a passive event for the learner
c. an active problem-solving event for the learner

c. random

Which of the following order of practice has the highest contextual interference?
a. Blocked
b. Serial
c. Random

a. summary feedback

Ms. Y is a 60 year old female who has had a stroke. She is re-learning how to get up off the floor. After completing 5 trials you tell her, "On the first trial you needed 40% assist from me, 30% on the second, only 10% on the third, then 40% and 50% assist on the fourth and fifth attempts". What type of feedback have you provided Ms. Y?
a. Summary feedback
b. Average feedback
c. Prescriptive feedback
d. Concurrent feedback

b. 4 days per week for 4 weeks

Mr. X is a 75 year old man with Parkinson's disease. He is referred to physical therapy for gait training. As his physical therapist you decide massed practice is needed to optimize his motor learning through the motor learning principles of intensity matters and achieve his therapy goals. You prescribe the following practice schedule.

a. 2 days per week for 4 weeks
b. 4 days per week for 4 weeks
c. 1 day per week for 8 weeks
d. 2 days per week for 8 weeks

d. knowledge of performance

You are teaching an in-service to student nurses on proper body mechanisms during your clinical rotation. During practice of transferring a client bed to wheelchair, you tell one student after observing her first attempt, "Bend your knees more and keep your back straighter when you lift." This is an example of what type of extrinsic (augmented )feedback?
a.concurrent feedback
b. average feedback
c. knowledge of results
d. knowledge of performance

b. opened

Juggling in the classroom or laboratory where people are moving around you and there is a lot of noise and distractions is an example of practice in a open or closed environment?

a. Closed
b. Open

a. enhance

Based upon motor learning literature, do knowledge of results and delayed feedback typically enhance or degrade motor learning?
a. Enhance
b. Degrade

a. internal focus

Does knowledge of performance direct the learner to have an internal focus or an external focus?
a. Internal focus
b. External focus

b. transfer test

Juggling a different item (doing a similar but different task) is an example of which type of motor learning test?
a. Retention test
b. Transfer test
c.Impossible test

a. serial

Performing fine motor upper limb tasks in the following order: pinching close pins, picking up sticks, buttoning shirt, pinching close pins, picking up sticks, buttoning shirt, pinching close pins, picking up sticks, buttoning shirt, is an example of what type of practice order?
a. Serial
b. Blocked
c. Random

a. Dependency; too frequently

d. Enhanced performance but reduced motor learning; too frequently

Extrinsic (augmented) feedback can have the negative effect of ____________ if given ___________. Choose all that apply.

a. Dependency; too frequently

b. Adaptive plasticity and consistent corrections; too infrequently

c. Enhanced error-detection; too infrequently

d. Enhanced performance but reduced motor learning; too frequently

a. Basal Ganglia
c. Sensiormotor cortex
e. cerebellum

Adaptive anatomic neuroplasticity in what 3 PRIMARY structures is critical for procedural learning in Mr.U ? (choose all 3)
a. Basal Ganglia
b. Hippocampus
c. Sensiormotor cortex
d. Amygdala
e. Cerebellum
f. Thalmus

Acquisition and re-acquisition of movement
• Involves learning new motor and sensory strategies
• Emerges from the complex interaction of perception/cognition/action

what is motor learning?

New solutions in specific tasks and environment given the new constraints imposed on the individual by neural pathology

what is recovery of function?

performance

Temporary change in motor behavior seen during practice sessions

learning

the acquisition or modification of movement
Results from experience of practice
-Produces relatively permanent changes in behavior
-Tested outside the context and or timeframe of training or practice

outside

learning is tested _____ the context and or timeframe of training or practice

cognitive phase
associative phase
autonomous phase

what are the 3 phases of motor learning?

cognitive phase

phase of motor learning:
earliest phase
-understanding WHAT TO DO

associative phase

second phase of motor learning
-knowing HOW TO DO IT

autonomous phase

last phase of motor learning
-DOING IT WELL

cognitive stage/phase

phase of motor learning:
-identifying task goal
-self-talk/questioning
-rapid performance
-error-ridden
-clumsy/inefficient

associative stage

phase of motor learnign:
-associates environmental cues with actions
-acheiving consistency
-refinement
-fewer/smaller errors
-can detect and correct errors

autonomous stage

phase of motor learning:
-almost automatic/habitual
-subconscious control
-multi-task
-minimal performance variability
-very few errors

declarative
mostly implicit
implicit

match each stage with type of learning:
cognitive= (declarative/implicit)

associative= (declarative/implicit)

autonomous= (declarative/implicit)

Schmidt's Schema Theory

Developed concurrently with motor program theory of motor control
▪ 4 steps to creating a 2 schemas (recall motor schema & recognition sensory schema) leading to development of a motor program
▪ Motor program = set of general rules of the spatial-temporal patterns for a type of movement

gentiles 2 stage model

model:
1. Understand task dynamics▪ Goal, appropriate movement strategies, environmental features
▪ Regulatory, non-regulatory features (more to come in later units) 2. Fixation/diversification
▪ Refine movement - consistency & efficiency and adaptability

declarative

type of memory:
-facts
-events

procedural

type of memory:
-priming
-skills and habits
-associative learning
-nonassociative learning

explicit motor learning

(explicit/implicit) motor learning:

verbal knowledge of movement performance = declarative memory

implicit motor learning

(explicit/implicit) motor learning:

no or minimal increase in verbal knowledge of movement (declarative memory) but improvement in movement performance (procedural memory)
-just doing it and cant necessarily describe it/go through stages

explicit learning= declarative memory

UNDERSTANDING how to do something
▪ Common understanding of learning
▪ Effortful processes to bring about changes in performance
▪ Paying attention to how a movement feels so you can modify next attempt
▪ Listing to a coach's suggestions for change in your movement
▪ Trying to consciously discover the rules for movement

-Results in being able to say what you did or how to do something

implicit learning= procedural memory

"Being able to do something"
▪ Changes in performance which are not accounted for by conscious
attention to the task
▪ Learner is initially unaware & may remain unaware to the aspects of task practice that are producing the positive change in performance
▪ Implicit knowledge can be applied without conscious awareness
▪ Explicit knowledge is not necessary
▪ Often unable to verbalize what was learned
▪ "Habit Learning"

cerebellum
basal ganglia
sensorimotor cortex

what are 3 areas of the brain important for implicit/procedural learning and memory?

cerebellum

part of brain:
Monitors and updates movement using sensory feedback
▪ Adjusts motor output to bilateral cortex
▪ Uses sensory information to guide
procedural learning

basal ganglia

part of brain:
Coordinates neural processes across brain regions
▪ Involved in movement response selection (changing movement or direction)

-Parkinsons disease has issue here

sensorimotor cortex

part of brain:

Active when explicit knowledge is unavailable and learning is implicit or internally driven,
• More active after movement sequence becomes automatic, (automatic/automous stage of motor learning)
• Can be utilized to drive motor learning when
explicit learning systems are damaged

hippocampus
medial temporal cortex
amygdala
prefrontal and premotor cortices

what are 4 important brain regions for explicit/declarative learning?

hippocampus and medial temporal cortex

part of brain:
Critically support formation of declarative learning and memory
▪ Damage decreases the ability to form declarative knowledge but ability for procedural learning is retained

ex. amnesia, encephalitis, Alzheimers

prefrontal cortex

part of brain:
Allows declarative learning to be held in working
memory and used to guide motor performance

premotor cortex

part of brain:
Important in sequence & timing via external cues and
explicit instructions

decreased ability to integrate declarative knowledge into movement

what does damage to prefrontal or premotor cortices lead to?

true

T/F: Implicit/Procedural learning can be maintained when explicit/declarative learning is compromised

neuroplasticity

The process of nueromodifiability

-parallels learning

fewer

As skill of task or movement increases (associative to automatic stages) ______ areas of brain are activated

Intercellular level (changes between neurons at the synaptic level including synaptic sprouting)
▪ Network level (changes in patterns of neural activation and cortical mapping)
▪ Intracellular level (mitochondrial and ribosomal function)
▪ Biochemical level (protein conformation, enzyme mobilization)
▪ Genetic level (transcription, translation and post-translation modifications)
▪ Brain support level (glial and vascular support)

what are the different levels neuroplasticity occurs at?

1. synaptic plasticity (modification of synaptic strength)

2. anatomical plasticity (Appearance of new circuits through axonal and dendritic sprouting and anatomical reorganization)

what are the 2 step mechanism underlying both long term potentiation and long term depression?

1. use it or lose it
2. use it and improve it
3. specificity
4. repetition matters
5.intensity matters
6. time matters
7. salience matters
8. age matters
9. transference
10. interference

what are the 10 principles of neuroplasticity?

Failure to drive specific brain functions can lead to functional degradation

-if we dont use specific function, brain region, connection etc it leads to degradation

describe use it or lose it principle

Training that drives a specific brain function can lead to an enhancement of that function

-more we use it the more we drive that connection and function

describe use it and improve it principle

The nature of the training experience dictates the nature of the plasticity.

describe principle of specificity

Induction of plasticity requires sufficient repetition

-more reps= better

describe repetition matters principle

Induction of plasticity requires sufficient training intensity

-have to make it challenging enough

describe intensity matters principle

Different forms of plasticity occur at different times during training

-Neurons that are synchronously activated tend to strengthen their connections between one another

describe time matters principle

The training experience must be sufficiently salient to induce plasticity

-must matter to the person
-if we dont care about it we wont want to learn it

describe salience matters principle

Training induced plasticity occurs more readily in younger brains

-younger=more plastic

describe the age matters principle

-Plasticity in response to one training experience can enhance the acquisition of similar behaviors

ex. learning a third language is easier after youve learned a second language

describe transference principle

Plasticity in response to one experience can interfere the acquisition of other behaviors

describe interference principle

restorative neuroplasticity

Resolution of temporary change in neural function via either...
▪ Recovery of injured neural tissue
▪ Nearby neural tissue takes over identical neural functions to the original tissue resulting in restitution of function
▪ *NO significant change in cortical organization*

compensatory neuroplasticity

▪ Completely different neural circuits enable recovery
▪ YES, change in cortical representation

can be:
-functional enabling
-functional disabling/maladaptive

functional enabling

functional disabling/maladaptive

what are 2 types of compensatory neuroplasticity

functional enabling

type of compensatory neuroplasticity:

changes in cortical representation associated with force-used paradigms that improve motor function

functional disabling/maladapative

type of compensatory neuroplasticity:

changes in cortical representation associated with disuse that reduce motor capabilities and create maladaptive sensory cortical reorganization (i.e. -phantom limb sensation)

cortical reorganization

A re-organization or alteration of the map due to an alteration in behaviorally relevant input toward the cortex
▪ Cortical areas continuously ADJUST to changes in sensory input = new motor output

intra-cranial cortical recording
-transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
-functional imaging

what are some methods used to measure cortical neuroplasticity via cortical mapping?

Chronic pain conditions, including Neuropathic pain
-Central Sensitization▪ Phantom limb pain

what are some examples of maladaptive neuroplasticity?

early, active, task-specific

_______ _______ ________ practice is essential for motor learning and adaptive neuroplasticity (EXPERIENCE and PRACTICE) minimizing disuse and maladaptive neuroplasticity

excitotoxicity

(too much too soon can be an issue)

Excessive vigorous rehab of motor recovery too soon after injury may contribute to ______

social-cognitive-affective-motor

•OPTIMAL Theory considers ______-______-_______-________
nature of "motor" behavior.

behavior

motor _______== happens in context of social, cognitive, and affective things

•Motor behavior is often performed publically
•Social environment influences the way that we learn and act
•Thriving under pressure vs. folding under pressure

how is motor behavior social?

•influence of a person's mindset on his or her performance
•Which in term influences learning
•"Choke under pressure" vs "in the flow/groove"
•Goes together with social

how is motor behavior/learning affective?

autonomy
enhanced expectancy
external focus

what are the 3 main principles of optimal theory?

motivation

We act when future prospects provide a sense that positive outcomes will occur

expectations

_________ carry personal histories of experiences forward in time into new contexts to allow preparation for future events

are not

Expectations (are/are not) motivationally neutral

true

T/F: Circumstances that enhance learners' expectations of future performance success can potentiate

•Positive feedback
•Social comparative feedback
•Self Modeling
•Reduce perceived task difficulty
•Defining success liberally
•Alleviate learners' concerns
•Influence how ability is conceptualized

what are some ways we can set up practice conditions that enhance learners performance expectancies?

•augmented feedback provides the learner with information about his or her performance relative to the task goal

-•Providing learners with feedback after "good" trials, compared with "poor" trials, resulted in more effective learning

what is the predominant view/idea about positive feedback?

successful

less successful

according to positive feedback:
•Feedback emphasizing _________ performance, while ignoring _______ _______attempts, benefits learning

social comparative

way to enhance expectations:

•Providing learner with normative information
-showing learner they perform at, near, or above normal value which increases confidence and motivation
•Increase perceived competence
•Reduce concerns and nervousness about performance and ability
•Increase satisfaction with performance
•Increase motivation to learn
•Increase positive affect

self modeling

way to enhance expectancies:

•Edited video feedback about learners' best performance
•Similar effects to social-comparative feedback
•
•Very powerful but more time consuming and less practical than others

perceived task difficulty

way to enhance expectations:
•Setting criteria that purportedly indicate good performance but can be easily reached
•Performance expectations can be influenced by suggestion

•Make task sound more feasible vs. something that sounds very challenging

-set environment where people feel like they can do the task they are given

conceptions of ability

way to enhance expectancies:

•Individuals view of abilities "as reflecting a fixed capacity versus being amenable to change with practice"
•Conceptions of ability can be influenced by task instructions or performance feedback

"Based on how you performed on this I anticipate you will perform well on this task because of how you performed on this precursor"

extrinsic rewards

way to enhance expectancies:

•Expectation of rewards for performance effectiveness enhance motivation and performance
•Improved performance over punishment for poor performance

•Don't punish them for doing poorly

positive affect

________ _______is expected to accompany most experiences that produced enhance performance expectancies

flexibility
creativity

•Positive affect has been shown to increase cognitive _______ and ________

autonomy

Allowing individual to exercise control over the environment

Control over practice conditions enhances motor skill learning

how does autonomy affect motor skill learning?

self controlled

according to autonomy:

•_______ _______feedback has been shown to enhance learning

enhanced

•Several clinical studies found that giving the patient control over deciding when to use a physical assistive device to use on balance tasks ________ learning the balance task

choice (autonomy supportive)

•Instructions that give the sense of _______ have led to better motor performance and learning than controlling language

autonomy supportive

_______ _______ language has been shown to enhance motor learning

(e.g., "...you may want to cradle and deliver the ball in a windmill fashion so the ball travels over the shoulder and not to an angle or to the side.")

extent

spacing

incidental choices:

•Allowing learns to chose the _______ or the _______ of practice trials has been found to lead to more effective learning

away
towards

(external focus= better)

•Instructions directing attention (towards/away from) one's body parts or self and (towards/away from) the intended movement effect have consistently been found to have an enhancing effect on performance and learning

•Improves movement effectiveness and efficiency
•Speeds the learning process so that a higher skill level is achieved sooner
•Internal can drive short duration performance improvements but external drives learning better
(Goal directed focus= good)

how does external focus of attention affect motor learning?

effectiveness

efficiency

movement ________=achieving the intended effect of the movement

movement ______=Same movement outcome achieved with less energy expenditure or more movement for same energy expenditure