Terrestrial Locomotion

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22 Terms

1
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Primitive Grade

plantigrade - foot fully on ground

5 digits

trunk swings laterally during gait

the proximal segments of limbs are longer than the distal segments

<p>plantigrade - foot fully on ground</p><p>5 digits</p><p>trunk swings laterally during gait</p><p>the proximal segments of limbs are longer than the distal segments</p>
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Compare plantigrade, digitigrade, and unguligrade foot postures, and discuss how these changes affect stride length, stride rate, and locomotor efficiency.

Stride Length

Stride Rate

Locomotion Efficiency 

Plantigrade

shortest

highest

walking

Digitigrade

medium

medium

Running + jumping

Unguligrade

longest

lowest

High-speed running

<table style="min-width: 100px;"><colgroup><col style="min-width: 25px;"><col style="min-width: 25px;"><col style="min-width: 25px;"><col style="min-width: 25px;"></colgroup><tbody><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;"><strong>Stride Length</strong></span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;"><strong>Stride Rate</strong></span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;"><strong>Locomotion Efficiency&nbsp;</strong></span></p></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;"><strong>Plantigrade</strong></span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">shortest</span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">highest</span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">walking</span></p></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;"><strong>Digitigrade</strong></span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">medium</span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">medium</span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">Running + jumping</span></p></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;"><strong>Unguligrade</strong></span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">longest</span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">lowest</span></p></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="border-width: 1pt; border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; padding: 5pt; overflow: hidden; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: transparent;">High-speed running</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p>
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  1. plantigrade

  2. digitigrade

  3. unguligrade

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Adaptations for Increasing Stride Length

  • lengthening limbs

  • lengthening metacarpals and metatarsals

  • extension and flexion of spine

  • increasing rotation of scapula by loss of clavicle

<ul><li><p>lengthening limbs</p></li><li><p>lengthening metacarpals and metatarsals</p></li><li><p>extension and flexion of spine</p></li><li><p>increasing rotation of scapula by loss of clavicle</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Adaptations for Increasing Stride Rate

  • addition of joints

    • change in foot posture

  • springing ligament

  • specialization of muscles

    • distal elongation of muscles

    • proximal migration

  • reduction of limb weight distally

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Proximal Migration of muscles close to the body

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Addition of Joints: Alteration of Foot Posture

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Springing Ligament

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Evolutionary trade-offs in cursorial mammals (cheetah example)

  • can only run for short distances

  • have fragile bones

  • bad at climbing trees = need open areas

  • have trouble defending their young and kills

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Cursorial adaptations in carnivores vs. ungulates

Carnivores

Ungulates

Little digit reduction - generally 4-5

Digit reduction

Plantigrade or digitigrade 

Unguligrade 

11
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Saltatorial locomotion vs Ricochetal locomotion

Saltatorial is the general term for jumping, while ricochetal is a specific type of saltatorial locomotion that uses only the hind limbs to hop (kangaroos).

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Adaptations for Saltatorial Locomotion that enable efficient hopping

  • hindlimb elongation

  • tail counterbalance

  • tendon elasticity

<ul><li><p>hindlimb elongation</p></li><li><p>tail counterbalance</p></li><li><p>tendon elasticity</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Energetic and ecological advantages and disadvantages of saltatorial locomotion

Advantages

Disadvantages

Quick acceleration

Increased energy costs for slow locomotion

Saves energy when in an area with widely dispersed food resources

Reduced maneuverability

Faster aerobic speeds

Difficult to exploit dense patches

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Graviportal adaptations in large-bodied mammals (ex., elephants)

  • heavy, pillar-shaped limbs

  • unreduced distal limb bones

  • large surface area to feet

<ul><li><p>heavy, pillar-shaped limbs</p></li><li><p>unreduced distal limb bones</p></li><li><p>large surface area to feet</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Adaptations for Brachiation Locomotion

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Adaptations for Scansorial Climbing Locomotion

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Adaptations for Sloth-like Locomotion

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Analyze the role of claws, prehensile tails, elongated arms, and specialized joints in facilitating arboreal life.

claws → climbing, gripping, hanging upside down

prehensile tails → extra limb to hold onto branches, counterbalance

specialized joints → maneuverability and stability

elongated arms → swinging from tree to tree

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Fossorial adaptations in rodents and moles + explain how they support digging.

  • enlarged front claws → act as shovels and push dirt aside

  • large muscles → more force behind digging

  • fusiform body → minimizes friction = moves efficiently through tunnels

  • small ears and eyes → prevents dirt from getting in them, not needed senses

  • short hair that stands straight up → can go forwards + backwards through tunnels

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Skeletal changes that show the evolutionary shift from knuckle-walking/arboreal locomotion to bipedalism in primates.

  • S-shaped spine

  • legs under head + trunk

  • knees point forward

  • big too parallel

<ul><li><p>S-shaped spine</p></li><li><p>legs under head + trunk</p></li><li><p>knees point forward</p></li><li><p>big too parallel</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Hypothesized benefits of bipedal locomotion

  • better view of predators

  • reach higher fruit

  • carry food + kids in variable environments

  • more energy efficient to walk

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Endurance running adaptations in humans

  • nuchal ligament

    • tendon that connects the skull to the neck

    • stabilizes the head - smoother, stabler run

  • short toes

    • reduces the work required to stabilize the foot joints when running

  • plantar arch

    • acts as a spring when running

  • hair reduction

    • efficient at cooling throughout the run, while the prey overheated