metal + acid --> ???
salt + hydrogen
Acid + Base --> ???
salt + water
Acid + Carbonate -> ???
salt + water + carbon dioxide
What is a Bohr shell diagram?
A diagram that shows electrons orbiting around the nucleus of an atom. The capacity of each circle is as follows: 2 in the first shell 8 in the second shell 8 in the third shell 2 in the fourth shell
What type of bonding occurs between two metals and how are the electrons arranged?
Metallic bonding and the electrons are free floating (sea of electrons)
What type of bonding occurs between two non metals and how are the electrons arranged?
Covalent bonding and the electrons are shared.
What type of bonding occurs between a metal and a non-metal and how are the electrons arranged?
Ionic bonding and the electrons are transferred
Ion
an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
What is a positive ion called?
cation
What is a negative ion called?
anion
monoatomic ion
an ion made of 1 element e.g., Li+ , S-2
polyatomic ion
an ion made up of more than 1 element e.g., NH4+ , Cr2O7-2
combination/synthesis reaction
a chemical change in which two or more substances react to form a single new substance. A + B --> AB
decomposition reaction
When something is broken down into smaller molecules (AB→A+B)
combustion reaction
a chemical reaction that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and light.
What can speed up a reaction?
high temps, large surface area, higher concentration, catalysts.
Characteristics of a base
Produces Hydroxide Ions Has a pH higher than 8 Turns litmus paper blue Neutralizes acids Bitter taste & soapy feel Bases that are soluble in water are called Alkalis Concentrated forms are corrosive
What is pH?
a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is.
It is measured by the amount of H+ ions in solution.
Characteristics of acids
An Acid is something that is Soluble it generally has a sour taste pH lower than 7. Acids produce lots of Hydrogen Atoms neutralize bases.
NH4 (+1 charge)
ammonium ion
NO2 (-1 charge)
nitrite ion
SO3 (-2 charge)
sulfite ion
OH (-1 charge)
hydroxide ion
PO4 (-3 charge)
phosphate ion
CO3 (-2 charge)
carbonate ion
CrO4 (-2 charge)
chromate ion
Cr2O7 (-2 charge)
dichromate ion
MnO4 (-1 charge)
permanganate ion
what does aqueous mean?
the solution is dissolved in water. water is the solvent - it is called aqueous
Soluble
capable of being dissolved
Solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances
Why does a catalyst increase the rate of reaction?
This is because they decrease the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur. Catalysts aren't used up in a reaction examples: -chemicals -enzymes
Why does surface area affect the rate of a reaction?
Tiny surface area exposes more of the substance making it easier for the particles to collide
what is an enthalpy diagram
What is an enthalpy diagram? An enthalpy diagram plots information about a chemical reaction such as the starting energy level, how much energy needs to be added to activate the reaction, and the ending energy.
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
Examples: pesticide resistance in insects, development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, drug resistant strains of HIV
artificial selection
Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits.
Examples: Breeding for different dogs, racehorses bred for strength, corn bred for size
Micro evolution
evolutionary change within a species or small group of organisms, especially over a short period.
Macro evolution
Large scale changes in biological traits resulting in different species
Fossil record
Chronological collection of life's remains in sedimentary rock layers
Fossilisation process
Organism dies
Organism needs to be preserved
Mineralization 4.Erosion removes sediments/rocks above the fossil revealing it.
Types of fossils
Indirect fossils
Not actual organism
But are remains
Mold and cast
Carbon Film
organism or plants compressed between different layers
Organic matter decays
Leaving a carbon film
Replacement
The original organism's fossil is replaced by minerals
Original fossil
Whole part of the organism has been preserved.
Skeleton bones, teeth
weathering
The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface.
Relative dating
Method of determining the age of a fossil by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock
index fossil
a fossil known to have lived in a particular geologic age that can be used to date the rock layer in which it is found
fluorine dating
Another relative dating method. It compares the amount of fluorine in different bones found in the same rock. Bones absorb fluorine from the water in the surrounding rock. This happens at a slow rate and depends how much fluorine is in the water surrounding the bone.
Absolute dating
dating methods that give the actual age of rocks and fossils are called absolute dating methods. Absolute dating still gives an estimate, but the estimate is far more specific than estimates provided by relative dating methods. There are many methods of absolute dating, one often used to be radioactive dating.
Radioactive dating
A technique used to determine the actual age of a fossil on the basis of the amount of a radioactive element it contains.
species
A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.
Speciation
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which native populations evolve to become distinct species.
Hybrid
Offspring of crosses between parents with different traits
Level of classification
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
(D.K.P.C.O.F.G.S)
adaptive radiation
Adaptive radiation is the rapid diversification of an ancestral population into several ecologically different species, associated with adaptive morphological or physiological divergence.
How does speciation occur?
Variation: There must be variation in the population or speciation cannot occur. This is because natural selection is involved, and selection can only act on variation that is already present in the population.
Isolation: The formation of new species requires isolation. This means different groups of the population are prevented in some way from interbreeding. Isolation prevents gene flow through the population, stopping any differences in one population from reaching the other population.
Selection: Once groups of a population are isolated by barriers, natural selection affects the genotype of each group. This can lead to changes that prevent each group from each other even if they come back together sometime in the future.
What is the order of the planets?
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
(M.V.E.M.J.S.U.N)
moon
A celestial body that orbits a planet, is also viewable through sun reflected by the sun
planet
a celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star.
black holes
Formed when massive stars explode in a supernova. The core of the massive star collapses in on itself and keeps on collapsing. They have a gravitational pull so strong that not even light can escape from it.
star
A large, glowing ball of gas held together by its own gravity also generates heat and light through nuclear fusion. Made up of Helium and Hydrogen
galaxy
a system of millions or billions of stars, together with gas and dust, held together by gravitational attraction.
nebula
a large, diffuse cloud of dust and gas in space
What are the three types of galaxies?
Spiral, Elliptical, and Irregular; The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy
Nuclear Fission
A type of nuclear reaction that is used to release energy from large and unstable atoms by splitting them into smaller atoms
Why is the 'Steady State theory' no longer accepted by scientists?
After the discovery of the cosmological microwave background radiation, which had been predicted as part of the big bang theory but had absolutely no reason to exist within the steady-state theory.
What are 3 theories for the creation of the universe?
Big Bang Theory 2. Creation theory 3. Constant State theory
Doppler Effect
an increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, or other waves as the source and observer move toward (or away from) each other. When relating to a star, stars change colors depending on how they are moving. If a star is moving away, there would be a slight color change to red (called Redshift) and if a star is moving towards Earth there would be a slight color change to blue (called Blueshift).
Cosmic Background Microwave Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation (leftover from the big bang) comes from every direction and can be detected in all areas of the universe. It is evidence of the big bang
Heliocentric
The sun is the center of the solar system
Geocentric
Earth is the center of the solar system
absolute magnitude
Absolute magnitude is a measure of the luminosity (light) of a celestial object, on an inverse logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale.
spectral type
Spectral type is the temperature of a depending on the colour it emits.
H-R diagram
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a graph that shows the relationship between a star's surface temperature and absolute magnitude
Genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations (Ww, RR, cc, FF)
Phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
Heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait (Aa, Bb, Cc)
Homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait (aa, bb, cc)
Dominant trait
dominant trait is one that is phenotypically expressed in heterozygotes. A genetic trait is considered dominant if it is expressed in a person who has only one copy of the gene. Dominant traits can't skip a generation.
Recessive trait
a genetic factor that is blocked by the presence of a dominant factor. This trait can skip a generation and Affected children can be born from two unaffected parents.
Karyotype
A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.
Nitrogenous bases
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracail
Nucleotide
Nitrogenous base + sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and phosphate group
sugar-phosphate backbone
The alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which the DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
Complementary pairing
Adenine = Thymine Cytosine = Guanine
How many chromosomes do humans have?
46 (23 pairs)
Apoptosis
process of programmed cell death
What regulates the cell cycle?
proteins
Mitosis
cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes
What are the stages of mitosis?
interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
Prophase (poles)
Chromosomes become visible
nuclear membrane dissolves
spindle fibre forms
Centrioles move to the POLES of the cells
Metaphase (middle)
Chromosomes line up across the middle/center of the cell Spindle fibres extend and attach to centromeres Sister chromatids start to be pulled apart
Anaphase (away)
Chromatids move along the spindle fibres away from the middle towards the poles (centrioles)
Telephase (two)
nuclear membrane reforms Spindle fibres dissolve We now have 2 sets of chromosomes
Somatic cells
any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells.
Why is meiosis necessary?
For the production of gametes for sexual reproduction
Genetic variation ( offspring of 2 individuals are different )
The stages of meiosis
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II
Meiosis
Cell division of cells to form gametes occurs in sex organs.
Prophase I (Meiosis)
Same as prophase in Mitosis -In meiosis chromosomes pair up to create a homologous pair
Metaphase 1 ( Meiosis )
Same as Metaphase in Mitosis In meiosis chromosomes line up in homologous pairs
Anaphase 1 (Meiosis)
Same as Mitosis Instead of chromatids being taken, homologous pair are taken
Telophase 1 (Meiosis)
same as mitosis Two haploid cells are formed