Time Period 3

Conservatism

philosophy, emphasizes the importance of tradition, established institutions, and a cautious approach to change. Preserves social order and maintains the status quo, reaction to radical changes brought by revolutions or movements for reform. a significant role in shaping political discourse in Europe during the 19th century, especially following major events like the French Revolution.

Edmund Burke

Irish statesman, political theorist, and philosopher, critique of the French Revolution and advocated for conservative principles. emphasized the importance of tradition, gradual change, and the dangers of radicalism, making him a key figure in shaping conservative thought in response to the upheaval caused by revolutionary movements in Europe.

Nationalism

political ideology, emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation or group, often advocating for self-determination and the sovereignty of nations. grew significantly during the 19th and 20th centuries, influencing various movements, conflicts, and changes in political structures across Europe and beyond.

Liberalism

political ideology, emphasizes individual freedoms, equal rights, and the protection of civil liberties, government that derives its power from the consent of the governed. Enlightenment thought, ideas such as democracy, free markets, and limited government. influenced political changes and social movements throughout Europe during the 19th century, response to the conservative order established after the Napoleonic Wars.

Adam smith

18th-century Scottish economist and philosopher, 'The Wealth of Nations,' laid the foundations of classical economics. ideas about free markets, competition, and the division of labor influenced economic thought and policies, impacting various social, political, and industrial developments across Europe. Individuals act in their own interest that leads to economic prosperity/society benefits through the “invisible hand”

Laissez-faire

economic theory, promotes minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing individuals and businesses to operate freely. encourages competition and innovation, free market can regulate itself through supply and demand. context of the development of global markets, the rise of industrial powers, and economic transformations, key principle that shaped policies and practices in the 18th and 19th centuries. Influenced by Adam Smith

Thomas Malthus

English cleric and scholar , theory of population growth and its relationship to resources. 'An Essay on the Principle of Population,' argued that populations tend to grow exponentially while food production increases arithmetically, inevitable shortages and societal challenges. significant during the period of rapid industrialization in Europe as they raised concerns about sustainability and the limits of growth.

David Ricardo

British economist, early 19th century, theory on comparative advantage and the distribution of income. influenced economic thought and laid the groundwork for modern free trade theories, addressed economic disparities and advocating for policies that could improve living conditions for the working class. “Iron Law of waves” argued that increase in wages would lead to population growth. Advocated for free trade.

John Stuart Mill

British philosopher and political economist, contributed to liberalism, utilitarianism, and social theory. advocated individual freedoms and equality, importance of personal liberty while also supporting social reforms to improve societal welfare during a time of significant industrial change. ‘On Liberty’ argued for the important of individual freedom. Believes in women’s rights and equity.

Utilitarianism

philosophical theory that suggests the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or utility. s largely developed in the 19th century by thinkers who were responding to the social upheavals and changes brought about by industrialization, advocating for reforms that would lead to the greatest good for the greatest number.

Socialism

economic/political system, advocated for collective or governmental ownership and administration of the means of production, distribution, and exchange. response to inequalities by capitalism, emphasized need for social welfare, equality, and the redistribution of wealth. significant during times of industrialization, labor movements, and political revolutions ,addressed the struggles faced by workers and the lower classes.

saint-Simon’s utopian vision

proposed by Comte de Saint-Simon, advocating for a society organized around industrial production and scientific knowledge. a new social order, led by scientists and industrialists, would create a more equitable and prosperous society, contrasting sharply with the existing aristocratic and capitalist structures. contributed to early socialist thought and inspired later movements for social reform.

Charles Fourier

French philosopher and one of the key figures of utopian socialism, known for his ideas on communal living and the establishment of phalansteries, or cooperative communities.

Robert Owen

Welsh social reformer, founding figure of the cooperative movement, wanted to improve the conditions of workers during the early Industrial Revolution. His vision included the establishment of utopian communities that emphasized education, communal living, and the welfare of all individuals, which connected closely with the social effects of industrialization as it aimed to address the inequalities and hardships faced by the working class. established model community, New Lanark.

Utopian socialists

early advocates of socialism who sought to create ideal communities based on cooperative principles and equitable distribution of resources. envisioned a society where wealth and power were shared more equally, often establishing model communities to demonstrate their ideas. laid the groundwork for later socialist movements, influenced political thought and social reform in the 19th century.

Revolutions of 1848

interconnected uprisings across Europe, fueled by demands for political reform, national independence, and social change. response to the discontent with conservative rule following the Congress of Vienna , driven by various social groups, like the middle class, worker, and nationalists seeking greater representation and rights. Many failed though

Emperor Francis Joseph

Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary from 1848 until his death in 1916. marked by significant political and social changes within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, particularly in relation to the rise of nationalism and ethnic tensions among its diverse populations. Implemented military reforms and tried to strengthen central authority, but faced trouble from multiple ethnic groups

Potato famine

1845 to 1852 in Ireland, failure of potato crops due to blight, lead to mass starvation and significant social upheaval. affected Ireland's population, leading to emigration and transforming the socio-economic landscape, which played a crucial role in the spread of industry throughout Europe by influencing labor patterns and industrial growth in other regions.

Louis Napolean Bonaparte

first President of France and later became the Emperor of the French from 1852 until 1870. Aimed at expanding French influence overseas, implemented significant economic reforms like the establishment of railroads and was captured after the defeat of the franco-prussian war.

June days

A workers' revolt in June 1848 against the closure of national workshops, highlighting social tensions and the challenges faced by the Second Republic

Second Republic

French government established after the 1848 revolution, aimed to create a democratic regime based on universal male suffrage. Had political upheaval, leading to the establishment of a presidential system and the eventual rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as emperor. Collapsed in 1851 after Napoleons declaration as Emperor Napoleon III.

Chartism

working-class movement in Britain during the 1830s and 1840s that aimed to gain political rights and influence for the working class through a series of demands known as the People's Charter. sought reforms like universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and payment for Members of Parliament, which were seen as necessary steps towards a more democratic society.

People’s Charter of 1838

document issued in 1838 by the Chartist movement outlining six key demands for political reform, including universal male suffrage and annual parliamentary elections.

France’s July Revolution of 1830

uprising in France, led to the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe. rose from widespread dissatisfaction with King Charles X's conservative policies, which echoed earlier conflicts over governance and rights seen in events like the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution.

carbonari

secret society in Italy that sought to promote liberal reforms and nationalism, which influenced the revolutionary activities leading to the unification of Italy.

Eastern Question

geopolitical issues and concerns surrounding the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the implications for European powers in the 19th century. As the empire weakened, questions arose about how to manage its territories, influence rising nationalism, and balance power among European nations, creating significant diplomatic tensions.

Nicholas I

Emperor of Russia from 1825 to 1855, autocratic rule and the establishment of a repressive regime that sought to maintain order and suppress dissent. significant events such as the Decembrist Revolt and the Crimean War. Implemented the ‘Official Nationality’ which promoted orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationalism as central tenets of Russian identity. Had secret police and strict censorship

Decembrist revolt

failed uprising that took place on December 14, 1825, where a group of Russian army officers and nobles attempted to overthrow Tsar Nicholas I in favor of constitutional reform. set the stage for future revolutionary movements in the 19th century. Highlighted the growing discontent among the educated elite and military officers.

reform act of 1832

legislation in Great Britain that expanded the electorate and reforming parliamentary representation. Increased the number of eligible voters by extending the franchise to more middle-class men. acknowledged the growing demands for reform from various social classes and set the stage for further political changes throughout the century.

poor law of 1834

legislation in England that reformed the existing poor laws, aimed at reducing the cost of looking after the poor and encouraging self-sufficiency among the needy. It established workhouses where the poor were provided with basic shelter and food in exchange for labor but it was harsh as it was to deter idleness and dependence on government aid.

Factory Act of 1833

legislation in Britain that aimed to improve working conditions in factories, particularly for children. established regulations on the working hours of children and mandated factory inspections. Those under 9 were prohibited for working in textile mills. inspired similar reforms across Europe.

Corn Laws

protectionist trade laws enacted in the United Kingdom during the early 19th century, designed to keep grain prices high by imposing tariffs on imported corn. These laws significantly influenced agricultural policy. Repealed in 1846. faced opposition from industrialists and urban workers.

new imperialism

late 19th and early 20th-century expansion of European powers into Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, characterized by a race for territorial acquisition and economic domination. Britain, France, and Germany aggressively pursued colonies for resources, markets, and strategic advantages, reshaping global politics and economies in significant ways.

Cecil Rhodes

British imperialist, businessman, and politician, role in the expansion of the British Empire in Southern Africa during the late 19th century. Found the De Beers diamond company that had diamond mines and for his ambition to create a 'Cape to Cairo' railway that would connect British territories from South Africa to Egypt, symbolizing the height of imperialist aspirations during this period.

The scramble for Africa

rapid invasion, colonization, and partitioning of the African continent by European powers from 1880s to the early 1900s. intense competition among European nations for control over African territories was driven by economic interests, political rivalry, and a belief in European superiority, led to impacts on Africa's social, political, and economic structures.

Berlin Conference of 1885

eeting held in 1884-1885 among European powers to regulate the colonization and trade in Africa. set the rules for the partition of Africa, leading to increased competition among European nations and the exploitation of African resources and people. No African leaders were present. Drew arbitrary borders.

Sepoy mutiny

widespread but ultimately unsuccessful uprising against British rule in India. Sepoys rebelled against their British commanders, since the new rifle cartridges were rumored to be greased with animal fat, and were brutally suppressed by British forces. British government took direct control of India in response.

Russo-Japanese war

military conflict between Russia and Japan,1904 to 1905, over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. first major victory of an Asian power over a European nation. The war resulted in Japan's emergence as a significant power in East Asia and fueled nationalist sentiments across Asia.

King Leopold II

King of Belgium from 1865 to 1909, had personal control of the Congo Free State, where he exploited its resources and people under the guise of humanitarianism. reign in the Congo is a notorious example of imperialism where rubber and ivory was extracted.

Agricultural revolution

period of significant agricultural developmen, late 17th century and continued into the 19th century, marked by innovations in farming techniques, crop rotation, and livestock breeding. led to increased food production, population growth, and the eventual shift toward industrialization.

enclosure acts

laws passed in England from the 18th to the 19th centuries that privatized common lands, converting them into individually owned plots. This transformation significantly impacted agricultural practices and social structures, contributing to urbanization and the rise of industry as displaced rural workers migrated to cities in search of jobs.

Growth of Capitalism

expansion and development of economic systems characterized by private ownership, competitive markets, and the pursuit of profit. driven by increased trade, innovations in banking and finance, and the establishment of colonial empires, which facilitated the flow of goods, resources, and capital across borders.

james hargreaves

English inventor, created the spinning jenny in the 1760s, a multi-spindle spinning frame that revolutionized the textile industry. critical role in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, allowing a single worker to spin multiple threads simultaneously, increased production and efficiency in the textile sector, contributing to the broader spread of industry throughout Europe.

Richard Arkwright

English inventor and leading entrepreneur in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution. innovations, in textile manufacturing and the establishment of factories, played a role in transforming production methods from small-scale, home-based work to large-scale, mechanized factory work. laid the groundwork for industrialization and significantly impacted social structures and labor practices.

water frame

Allowed for the mass production of cotton yarn using water power to drive spinning machines, significantly enhancing production capacity in the textile industry.

James Watt

Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer, known for his improvements to the steam engine in the late 18th century. transformed the efficiency of steam power and laid crucial groundwork for the Industrial Revolution, facilitating significant economic and social changes across Europe

Luddites

English workers in the early 19th century, protested against the rise of industrialization by destroying machinery that they believed threatened their jobs. response to the negative impacts of industrialization on labor, particularly in textile industries, highlighting the tension between technology and traditional ways of working.

Cooperative societies

collective groups formed during the 19th century that emphasized communal living, shared resources, and cooperative labor as a response to the industrialization and urbanization of Europe. aimed to create alternative social and economic structures based on principles of mutual aid, equality, and sustainability, reflecting broader intellectual developments like socialism and utopianism.

Karl Marx

German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary socialist whose ideas about capitalism and class struggle laid the foundation for modern socialism and communism. emphasized the role of economic forces in shaping society and history, advocating for the working class to rise against capitalist oppression and establish a classless society.

The Communist manifesto

political pamphlet written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848 that outlines the principles of communism and critiques capitalism. calls for the working class to unite against their oppressors and emphasizes the idea that all of history is a history of class struggles. crucial role in shaping socialist movements and ideologies, influencing revolutions and social reform efforts throughout the 19th century.

Communism

political/ economic ideology advocating for a classless society where all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs. reshaped political landscapes in the 20th century, influencing various movements and ideologies, leading to tensions and conflicts between opposing systems like capitalism

Florence Nightingale

a pioneering nurse and social reformer known for her foundational role in establishing modern nursing practices during the 19th century. Her work in the Crimean War and her efforts to improve sanitary conditions in hospitals greatly influenced health care reform and laid the groundwork for nursing as a respected profession. ‘lady with the lamp’

Concert of Europe

system of cooperative international relations established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain the balance of power and prevent further large-scale conflicts in Europe. involved regular meetings and negotiations among the major powers, aiming to resolve disputes peacefully and uphold conservative principles against revolutionary movements. Austria, Prussia, Russia, the UK, and France

Syllabus of Errors

document issued by Pope Pius IX in 1864, outlining a list of perceived errors in modern thought and political ideology, including liberalism and rationalism. It served to reaffirm the Church's traditional teachings and oppose secularism and modernity, influencing Catholic doctrine and politics in the latter half of the 19th century. Contributed to tensions between the Church and modern states

Risorgimento movement

political and social campaign in the 19th century aimed at the unification of Italy. encompassed a series of revolutionary events, wars, and political maneuvers that sought to liberate Italian territories from foreign control and establish a cohesive Italian nation-state, reflecting broader themes of nationalism and unification during this period.

Count Camillo di Cavour

leading figure in the Italian unification movement during the 19th century, Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia. diplomat and strategist who played a crucial part in achieving the unification of Italy through a combination of political maneuvering and alliances, particularly with France, helped to strengthen the movement against Austrian dominance in northern Italy. Rooted in liberalism and favored constitutional monarchy

Giuseppe Mazzini

Italian politician, journalist, and activist , role in the movement for Italian unification in the 19th century. proponent of nationalism, advocated for a unified Italy based on democratic principles and the idea of a nation-state. inspired many nationalistic movements across Europe, emphasizing the importance of national identity and self-determination. Found the Young Italy movement

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian nationalist and military leader, role in the unification of Italy during the 19th century. prominent figure in the nationalist movement, as he led campaigns that significantly contributed to the consolidation of the Italian states into a single nation. military tactics, guerrilla, and charismatic leadership helped inspire many Italians to support nationalism and fight for a united Italy.

red shirts

paramilitary group led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification movement in the 19th century. red uniforms symbolized their commitment to the cause of nationalism and played a vital role in the campaigns that led to the unification of Italy. Participated in campaigns to liberate Sicily and Southern Italy from Bourbon rule.

Victor Emmanuel II

first king of a unified Italy, 1861 until 1878. l role in the Italian unification process, known as the Risorgimento, which aimed to consolidate various independent states and territories into a single nation-state. His leadership and support for figures like Count Cavour were pivotal in fostering a sense of nationalism and unity among Italians during the 19th century.

Franco-Prussian War

conflict between France and the German states led by Prussia, 1870 to 1871, decisive victory for the Prussians. significant role in the unification of Germany and set the stage for future tensions in Europe, influencing alliances and conflicts that would erupt in the early 20th century.

Otto von Bismark

German statesman, first Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 until 1890, role in unifying Germany through a series of wars and diplomatic maneuvers. Orchestrated the Danish War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the franco-Prussian War. Also made social reforms such as health insurance. ‘Blood and Iron’

Danish war

conflict between Denmark and the combined forces of Prussia and Austria, occurring from 1864 to 1865. role in the context of national unification in Germany and heightened diplomatic tensions in Europe, as it set the stage for future conflicts and the eventual unification of Germany under Prussian leadership. Prussia victory.

Austro-Prussian War

conflict between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866. crucial role in the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership and shifted the balance of power in Europe by diminishing Austria's influence and establishing Prussia as a dominant force in German affairs.

Ems dispatch

a diplomatic communication sent in July 1870 by German Emperor Wilhelm I. escalate tensions between France and Prussia. modified by Otto von Bismarck to make it appear as though Wilhelm had insulted the French ambassador, led to a declaration of war by France and the Franco-Prussian War. exemplifies how diplomacy can be manipulated to achieve nationalistic goals and unify states.

Kulturkampf

conflict between the German government, led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, and the Catholic Church , late 19th century. aimed to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church in public life and promote state control over educational and social institutions. highlighted tensions between religion and state authority

Third French Republic

government established in France after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, lasting until 1940. period of political stability, economic growth, and cultural flourishing in France amidst challenges such as political divisions, social unrest, and external threats. Industrialization and economic modernization

Paris commune

revolutionary government that briefly ruled Paris from March to May 1871, representing radical socialist ideals and the desire for greater democracy.

1857 Second reform act

legislation in the United Kingdom that expanded the electorate by granting voting rights to more men, urban working-class males. response to the growing demands for political reform during the period of industrialization, reflecting the shifting power dynamics and social changes occurring in British society at that time. 1.1 million to 2 mil+ men changed.

Queen Victoria

monarch of the United Kingdom from 1837 -- 1901, reign marked a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the British Empire. characterized by the expansion of the British Empire and significant advancements in various intellectual fields. Supported colonial ventures which led to an increased British presence in regions like India and Africa

Tsar Alexander II

Emperor of Russia from 1855 until his assassination in 1881,significant reforms that aimed to modernize Russia and improve its social and economic structure. emancipation of the serfs in 1861 that ended serfdom and faced opposition from both conservatives and radicals. Also did judicial reform and military modernization.

Young Turks

a revolutionary group that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries within the Ottoman Empire, advocated for modernization, reform, and the establishment of a constitutional government. Led a revolution that restored constitution. Adopted western-style reforms in education, law and governance. Implemented policies that aimed at Turkification.

Second Industrial Revolution

period of rapid industrial growth and technological advancement that occurred primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked by innovations in steel production, electricity, and chemical processes. Rise of new technologies like the internal combustion engine , introduced electricity, and new communication tech.

Henry Bessemer

English engineer and inventor, developed the Bessemer process, method for producing steel efficiently and cheaply in the 19th century. role in the Industrial Revolution, enabled mass production of steel, which became essential for infrastructure, transportation, and machinery.

Marie Curie

scientist, groundbreaking work in radioactivity and the discovery of the elements polonium and radium. advanced the field of physics and chemistry and had significant implications for medicine, particularly in cancer treatment, key figure in the scientific developments between 1815 and 1914. First women to win a Nobel Prize. Developed mobile radiography units.

Albert Einstein

theoretical physicist, developed the theory of relativity, and revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and gravity. laid the foundation for modern physics and had profound implications across various fields, influencing not only science but also culture, philosophy, and art during the 20th century in art movements like surrealism

Friedrich Nietzsche

German philosopher, impact on modern philosophy and existentialism. critiques of traditional morality, religion, and the rise of rationalism in the 19th century, asserting that 'God is dead' and promoting the idea of the Übermensch as a new ideal for humanity. challenged the foundations of European culture and influenced various fields, like psychology, literature, and the arts,

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist a, founder of psychoanalysis, method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. theories about the unconscious mind, repression, and the significance of dreams influenced psychology, literature, and the arts, as well as broader cultural thought during and after his time. ‘The Interpretation of Dreams’

Louis Pasteur

French chemist and microbiologist , discoveries in the field of microbiology, principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation, and pasteurization. laid the groundwork for modern microbiology and has had a lasting impact on science and medicine, especially during a time when public health and scientific advancements were rapidly evolving.

Charles Darwin

English naturalist, theory of evolution through natural selection, which he detailed in his landmark work 'On the Origin of Species' published in 1859. transformed the understanding of biological diversity and influenced various fields, including social thought and institutional reforms.

Social Darwinism

social theory that applies the concept of 'survival of the fittest' from Darwin's theory of evolution to human societies. late 19th century, often used to justify imperialism, racism, and social inequality, suggesting that certain races or societies were naturally superior to others.influenced many intellectual developments and scientific thinking during the period, impacting how imperialism was viewed and rationalized.

Age of the Middle Class

Anarchists

individuals or groups who advocate for a society organized without hierarchies or authoritative structures, reject centralized government and often promoting self-governed societies. response to the oppressive systems of governance and social injustices prevalent in Europe, seeking to establish a more egalitarian and liberated society. Use direct means to achieve goals, various branches. Ex. Joseph Proudhon

Joseph Proudhon

Edwin Chadwick

19th-century British social reformer , work in public health and sanitation, efforts to improve living conditions for the urban poor. 'The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population,' highlighted the dire health issues caused by poor sanitation and overcrowded living conditions, leading to significant institutional reforms in public health policies during the Industrial Revolution.

Papal infallibility

antisemitism

hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial group. social exclusion, economic restrictions, violence, and systemic oppression. significant role in shaping societal attitudes and policies, particularly during periods of political upheaval and the rise of nationalist ideologies.

Dreyfus Affair

political scandal in France that involved the wrongful conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French Army, for treason in 1894. Revealed widespread anti-Semitic sentiment in French society.

pogroms

violent riots or mob attacks aimed at persecuting and destroying the property, lives, and communities of Jewish people, primarily in Eastern Europe. often fueled by deep-seated anti-Semitic sentiments and were sometimes condoned or even supported by local authorities. contributed to the growing atmosphere of fear and persecution against Jewish communities.

Zionism

nationalist movement, originated late 19th century, advocated for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. response to widespread anti-Semitism in Europe and sought to promote Jewish self-determination and national identity, led to the founding of the State of Israel in 1948. role in shaping Jewish identity and mobilizing support for Jewish immigration to Palestine.

Theodore Hertzl

Austrian journalist, founder of modern political Zionism, advocated for the establishment of a Jewish state in response to growing anti-Semitism in Europe. His efforts played a pivotal role in the rise of nationalism among Jewish communities, as he promoted the idea that Jews should have their own nation to ensure their safety and identity.

Cult of domesticity

19th century, emphasized the role of women as virtuous homemakers and caregivers, placing them at the center of family life and moral education. promoted the idea that a woman's place was in the home, to provide emotional support to her husband and raise children with strong moral values.

Feminism

social and political movement advocating for the rights of women and equality between the sexes. It seeks to address issues such as gender discrimination, reproductive rights, and workplace equality, aiming to transform societal norms and institutions that perpetuate gender inequality.

Suffragists

Women’s social and politicial union

British women's suffrage organization founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters. militant approach to advocating for women's rights, particularly the right to vote, using tactics like protests, hunger strikes, and civil disobedience. crucial role in the broader movement for women's suffrage

Emmeline Pankhurst

British political activist and leader of the women's suffrage movement in the early 20th century, advocated for women's right to vote. She founded the WSPU in 1903, key figure in the history of feminist movements.

Romanticism

artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century as a response to the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment. emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature, contrasting with the rationalism of preceding eras. movement influenced various cultural expressions, shaping new ideas about society, art, and politics.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

18th-century philosopher , deas about the social contract, individual freedom, and the natural goodness of humanity. laid groundwork for modern political thought and emphasized the importance of emotion and nature in contrast to the rationalism of earlier Enlightenment thinkers. Believed that humans were innate good

William Wordsworth

English Romantic poet , deep appreciation of nature, the human experience, and the emotional power of poetry. He, along with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication 'Lyrical Ballads' in 1798, which emphasized individualism and emotional expression over the classical ideals of reason and restraint.

Victor Hugo

French writer of the 19th century. His works, deeply intertwined with the cultural and social issues of his time, reflected themes of justice, love, and the struggles of the human condition, making him a central figure in the Romantic movement. Wrote ‘Les Miserables’