Sociology Final Review (part 2)

chapter 6 terms

race

* a group set apart by others by physical differences described as ‘obvious’ and are said to share a common bloodline

ethnicity

* group distinctions based on national origin or distinctive cultural patterns

milestone demographic changes in the US

As Recently as 2011

* First year when there were more non-White Hispanic babies born than White non-Hispanic babies.
* Demographers speak of a “majority minority’ U.S. population in decades to come, with more than 50% of the population being non-white and/or Hispanic
* Changes in the largest Minority groups
* Among people 50+, African Americans are the largest minority group
* Among younger cohorts, Hispanic is the largest minority group
* By 2044, no one racial group will be the statistical majority

core insights on race (DuBois)

the world problem of the 20th century is the color line:

* the question of the relation of the advanced races of men who happen to be white to the great majority of the underdeveloped/half-developed nations of mankind
* the role of race & racism in social life & history
* collectively all beliefs & practices about race yield objective consequences for life chances & choices of groups who are defined by racial category
* co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

white privilege (DuBois)

rights & immunities granted to people as a particular benefit or favor simply because they are white

* having greater access to power & resources
* not a simple matter of accrued inconveniences but a set of lingering practices stemming from historical inequities w/measurable negative outcomes of scale

redlining (1930s)

* practice w/origins in financial services operated by govt. agencies/private companies, denying homeownership to racial minorities seeking to purchase in nonwhite areas, -
* entities drew 'red lines' around neighborhoods considered too high risk for home loans

Jim Crow laws

* the consistent problem of limits (state & local laws or ordinances upholding segregation) on social choices until the mid-20th century

white privilege (Peggy McIntosh)

focused on societal privileges associated w/being male

* you’re less likely to be interrupted when you speak
* social norms allowing men to take up more physical space
* you can receive praise for ordinary parental duties or for being a single father (while mothers tend to be criticized)
* you’re not described as going against your gender’s “natural instinct” or your role in society by not having children

examples of white privilege (McIntosh’s “unpacking the Knapsack of Privilege)

* if I should need to move, I can be pretty sure of renting/purchasing housing in an area where neighbors will be pleasant to me
* I don’t have to educate my children to be aware of systematic racism
* I can easily buy posters, postcards, picture books, etc. featuring people of my race
* I can worry about racism w/out being seen as self-interested or self-seeking
* examples

examples of white privilege (cont.)

* I can have encounters with police w/out worrying that my race may influence how my mvmts, gestures, or behaviors are interpreted
* I can learn about the history of my race/ethnicity in school curriculum
* I can experience media content does not dehumanize or stereotype my racial/ethnic category

stereotypes

* unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that don’t recognize individual differences w/in the group

racism

* an ideology/set of interrelated ideas involving at least 3 beliefs
* humans may be divided into neatly demarcated physical types
* these types/bloodlines are linked to diff. ways of living or cultures, behaviors, personalities
* some (race-based) groups are superior to others
* “individual processes, group-level processes, institutional arrangements that are associated (directly or indirectly) in the reproduction of racial inequality and grounded in racial ideologies.”

racial formation

* a socio-historical process in which societies create, change, & at times eliminate racial categories/definitions
* forms 'races'
* examples are indicative of the socially constructed nature of race
* changes in category names used by the US census
* “colored” became “black,” with “Negro” and “African American” added later. The term “Negro” was dropped for the 2020 census.

racialization

* the act of giving a racial character to someone or something: the process of categorizing, marginalizing, or regarding according to race
* forms radicalized groups

historical origins of race

* humans have always used "like us" or "not like us" (involves linking internal biological properties)
* Usage of ‘race’ involves linking internal biological properties to our thinking of who is and is not like us
* ex: Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834)- Prevalent desire for religious

unity, and Jews as a subgroup—including those who converted to Christianity—were viewed with concern over their ‘Jewish blood’that may lack purity and reflect significant, unwanted differences.

Franz Boaz (social construction of race)

* among the first to challenge a prevailing academic consensus that black & brown ppl were a lower order in humanity
* advanced a racial theory that distinguished race from culture
* demonstrated the unsound methods & logic of scientific racism
* worked w/NAACP & DuBois; viewed as an ally for racial equality

"one drop rule" as a racial formation

used to designate people who had a single drop of "black blood"

* applied only to American blacks; held important legal implications for individuals
* right to vote, own property, to marry the person of your choice
* also known as the "traceable amount rule" & "hypo-descent rule" & "one black ancestor rule"

why is race best considered a social construction?

more than a quality we can see

* involves
* the application of meanings (about character, criminality, tendencies) and understandings of observable group distinctions (e.g. skin color)
* the culmination of a process by which people come to define a group as a race, based on physical characteristics, but also historical, cultural, and economic factors.” (165)
* Outcomes. socially created meanings assigned to the visible differences in characteristics (e.g., skin tone, hair texture, body parts,) that contribute to identifiable
* Discriminatory behaviors that occur
* between individuals, in the arrangements of our social lives, in the policies & practices of our institutions
* and that have measurable adverse impacts on numerous areas of social life & life outcomes

what are some myths associated with the concept of race?

Race is a social idea, not a scientific concept

* No biological basis for distinguishing human ‘races’
* the % of our genetic profile that is reflected in our external appearances ( the basis for how we distinguish racial categories) represents about .01% of our genetic make-up
* Geneticists argue that groups called ‘racial categories’ are too varied to lump together in a scientific way. In DNA studies, no one uses ‘white’ as a group to look for markers for a certain disease because ‘white’ has no meaning at the genomic level

individual racism

* personal beliefs & attitudes that may affect the way a person treats people of color
* ex: an employer believing white employees are more reliable & have stronger work ethics

interpersonal racism

* flowing from racial prejudice, treating others w/discriminatory behavior that ranges from micro aggressions to physical violence
* ex: a person using a slur, showing hostilities/aggression toward ppl of color

institutional racism

* policies/behaviors w/in an organization intended to discriminate against ppl of color
* ex: a practice among hiring managers who disqualify candidates based on their names
* redlining
* Jim Crow laws

systematic racism

* perpetuated discrimination w/in a system or institution characterized by historical racist principles or practices
* ex: in higher education, well-intended policies created to remove access barriers that have the effect of reinforcing racial inequalities (like black veterans who are less successful in accessing these benefits

structural racism

* a context where cultural values & beliefs in society are so ingrained in daily life that they are seen as "the way things are”
* ex: policies & practices in the criminal justice system that result in unacknowledged, harmful racial disparities in sentencing patterns

functionalist perspective on race

racially biased practices & beliefs benefit or serve as positive functions for those in structurally powerful positions

* racially biased beliefs offer moral justifications for maintaining inequalities
* racially biased practices & beliefs discourage members of minority groups from critiquing or questioning their socially constructed identity
* the offer a legitimizing rationale for current arrangements

functionalist perspective on race (cont.)

dysfunctions also result from racial/ethnic biases & discriminatory practices or arrangements

* society does not benefit from the fullest range of talents from individuals
* racial & ethnic discrimination creates secondary problems
* poverty, higher rates of violent crimes, street crimes, property crimes
* societal resources are washed on defending or upholding arrangements & practices that limit full participation of all members

conflict perspective on race

vested interests perpetuate racial inequality through economic exploitation

* class-based conflict is inherent and a fundamental part of social interaction.
* if racial and ethnic conflict is tied to class conflict, class inequality must be reduced to lessen racial and ethnic conflict in society.
* Ongoing disagreements about the significance of "class versus race"

exploitation theory (conflict perspective)

The framework for explaining racial stratification in the US

* associated with Marxist tradition
* Basic assumptions:
* Racism operates to keep racial minorities in economically weak structural positions•
* The ruling elite benefit from the exploitation of wage earners, who are in great supply
* Through the exploitation of racial and ethnic groups through unnecessarily low wages, capitalists may keep wages artificially low for all wage earners, not just racial minorities
* Racial minorities are most likely to encounter racism when they begin to compete with the majority group in the labor market (e.g. Japanese Americans early 20th century)

interactionist perspective on race

Cooperative interracial contact can reduce problems such as hostility

* Tends to focus on two issues:
* the role of social interaction in reducing/increasing racial and ethnic hostility
* how race and ethnicity are socially constructed.

contact hypothesis

(176). Cooperative, sustained interactions between people of different racial, ethnic, national backgrounds tend to minimize stereotypes and prejudices

* Has many applied implications for groups relations as the national demographics change, creating greater opportunities for engagements

prejudice

* a negative attitude toward an entire category of people (ethnic/racial group)

discrimination

* denial of opportunities & equal rights to individuals & groups based on some type of arbitrary bias

ethnocentrism

* the tendency to assume that ones own culture & way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others

*How we live by Race*: Black population

the black population is growing

* grown by more than 10 million since 2000 (29%)

educational attainment:

* 30.8% of black adults have some college degree
* 7.8% have a graduate degree
* 14% have a bachelors degree
* 31.2% have a high school diploma

*How we live by Race*: white population

largest racial category (204 million people alone)

* 8.9% decline since 2010

educational attainment:

* 47.1% of whites have a college degree
* 13.4% have a graduate degree
* 27.7% have a bachelors degree
* 6.2% have a high school diploma

*How we live by Race*: asian American

population is growing

* experienced 18% growth rate in the past 2 decades
* highest among all racial & ethnic groups in the US

educational attainment:

* ages 25 & older w/at least a bachelors degree (varies by origin of group)

*How we live by Race*: hispanic population

is increasing

* Hispanics made up 18.7% of total US representation, 17 million people (2020)

educational attainment:

* 16% of all Hispanic 25 years and older have at least a bachelors degree
* 20% of all US born hispanics who are 25 years or older have at least a bachelors degree

What are the 5 milestones of adulthood?

* educational attainment
* full-time employment
* residential independence
* marriage
* parenthood

technology revolution (1 of 4 revolutions of the 20th century)

* us economy changes from a manufacturing based economy to a skills based economy
* required higher levels of education

sexual revolution (2 of 4 revolutions of the 20th century)

* availability of dependable birth control, permitting more sexual relationships outside marriage w/lower risk for pregnancy
* contributed to delays in marriage & parenthood

women’s movement (3 of 4 revolutions of the 20th century)

* shifted ideas about gender roles, more women entering higher education & largely male occupational settings
* contributed to delays in traditional markers of adulthood

youth movement(4 of 4 revolutions of the 20th century)

* more youth viewing 'traditional markers' of adulthood as perils to avoid rather than accomplishments to pursue

comparing males & females by race on milestones achieved by the age of 34

men: racial & ethnic differences are more pronounced among young people with less education

* Native-born males with a HS diploma or less, the % who reflect the No milestones profile, racial/ethnic differences are sharp
* 22% of white men (No Milestones, HS diploma or less)
* 31% of Asian men
* 42% of Black men “
* 24% of Hispanic men “
* Native-born males with a college degree or higher who reflect the All milestones profile, racial/ethnic differences are less sharp
* 24% of white men (All Milestones, College degree+)
* 9% of Asian men
* 17% of Black men
* 18% of Hispanic men

women: racial and ethnic differences are less consistently influenced by educational attainment

* Single Mom (unmarried, lives with a child of their own, may or may not be \\n residentially independent, may or may not work full-time).
* Native women with HS education or less, % who are Single moms
* 49% of black women
* 35% of Hispanic Women
* 27% of white women
* 19% of Asian women
* Native-born women with a college degree or higher who achieved all milestones profile,
* 20% of white women
* 10% of Asian women
* 13% of Black women
* 16% of Hispanic women

chapter 7 terms

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gender

* A human attribute about which there are meanings, associations, and objective observables that differentiate people, typically according to our sex:

social construction of gender

* A socially created set of roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people

sex

Sex is a set of ascribed genetic, anatomical, and hormonal features.

* A combination of 3 factors


1. sex chromosomes (XX or XY),
2. internal procreative organs and related features
3. and external genitalia

gender inequality

* discrimination based on sex or gender causing one sex or gender to be routinely privileged or prioritized over another, reflected in wealth, income, and status differences

gender stratification

* The unequal distribution of power, privilege, prestige that men and women have in groups, collectives, and societies

gender role socialization

gender socialization prepares humans for gendered roles

* it involves learning the structural guidelines and positions expected of people considering sex

gender role

* expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, & activities of males or females

gendering

* a comprehensive experience that shapes the sense of self, involves all major agents of socialization, and is an evolving societal endeavor and individual experience

side effect discrimination

Practices in one area of life that have negative impacts because they are related to practices in a different area of life

* The social position of mother—and the broad role related expectations— may make it more challenging for women to commit to the work schedule

bechdel test

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an idea born out of a 1985 comic strip by American cartoonist Alison Bechdel.

* benchmark for assessing the balance in female representation in movies
* Elements of the Bechdel Test?
* Are there at least 2 females in the movie?
* Do the women talk to each other?
* Do the women talk about something other than a man?

functionalist perspective on gender inequality

Parsons and Bales argued that in the context of the family, men’s and women’s specialization in different tasks contributes to social stability of the institution of the family and societal well-being:

* instrumental v. expressive gendered roles in the family are complementary and functional for the family unit

instrumentality (functionalist)

Men. Practical social role, emphasis on tasks, long-term goals, and concern for external times between the family unit and other social institutions

* anchored men to labor force

expressiveness (functionalist)

Female. Focused on maintaining harmony and emotional well-being in the family unit.

* Anchored women into roles of wife, mother, and household manager

parsons sex role theory (functionalist)

The nuclear family (male earner, female domestic/home based) is the ideal arrangement in modern societies because it is most effective & efficient for reproducing workers (i.e., children)

* Each member of the nuclear family has an assigned role, script, and set of sanctions for fulfilling/violating these expectations.
* The adult male/female positions (Instrumental & expressive) in the nuclear family are functional for the whole of society

table 7.2- sociological perspectives on gender

functionalist:

* gender differentiation contributes to social stability

conflict:

* gender inequality is rooted in the female-male power relationship

feminist:

* women’s subjugation is integral to society & social structure

interactionist:

* gender distinctions & doing gender are reflected in people’s everyday behavior

interactionist perspective on gender inequality

Gender differences are not predetermined but emerge in relation to perceived sex differences in societies and cultures, which in turn shape and/or perpetuate those differences. Focus on gender stratification at the micro level of social life:

* how we ‘do’ gender daily and actively,
* Examine the symbolic meaning & reinforcing effects regarding masculinity and femininity
* Males – spacious body spacing,
* Females - pausing to allow a male to open a door for you
* People are not passive recipients of gendering, but work out their gender through meanings related to our sex assignments

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conflict perspective on gender inequality

Gender inequality is rooted in the female-male power relationship

* mens instrumental skills are more highly rewarded whether on mount or prestige
* an unequal power as men occupy the dominant position
* see gender difference as a reflection of the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men)

feminist perspective on gender inequality

Offers a critique of women’s position in society and culture, but there is no one ‘feminist’ perspective on gender.

* A deep intellectual history in sociology, beginning Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of women (1792)
* Shares much with the conflict perspective but with greater promotion of political engagement
* African American feminist Patricia Hill Collins; 2 key concept

intersectionality (feminist)

* the overlapping and interdependent system of advantage and disadvantage that positions people in society on the basis of race, class, gender, sex, and ethnicity.
* Overemphasis on any one dimension hinders the ability to see the impact of other areas

social feminist perspective

* unequal gender relations are the basis of all life chances and choices, but gender and social class positions intersect to create fundamental oppression of women


* Under capitalism, exceptional disadvantages characterize the experiences of women in the job market and family.
* Capitalists (majority male) benefit from women's subordination.


* Do not view policy reforms as the solution to gender inequalities because societal and economic structures are fundamentally flawed
* Claim that the emphasis on binary gender differences is socially harmful
* pits men v. women for scarce resources (e.g., in the home the resource of leisure \n time, social regard).
* contributes to the relatively greater value of men’s work and devaluation of women’s work

liberal feminism

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Gender inequality is grounded in social and cultural attitudes

* Identify several factors that contribute to gender inequalities
* Sexism and discrimination in the workplace, Media, entertainment industry (e.g., feature films)
* Advocate for equal opportunities for women through legislation and other democratic approaches, working through existing political and economic systems

gender inequality in workplace

Women are a prominent component of the labor force (47% of the workforce v. 20% in 1950s)

* Women report and experience more subjective and objective adverse consequences associated with parenting and working for pay
* Women as parents experience a ‘second shift”: a term used to describe the workload women have over and above what men have.
* Women are impacted by side-effect discrimination
* Women experience a ‘motherhood penalty
* Gender imbalances remain in many of the higher-paying occupations
* Women overrepresented among lowest paying occupations
* representation of women in higher earning higher prestige positions remains relatively low
* Women are 5.8% of all CEO’s in the US(better than global patterns, where 1% of all corporate managerial positions are populated by females)
* 9.5% of top earners

glass ceiling

* Social processes based on gender beliefs that limit or hinder progress to full advancement in areas of employment

sticky floor

* practices and policies that keep the majority of women in low-paid jobs
* Traditionally framed as manifest in pay inequities between females and males in similar positions, with similar work histories, skills, etc

second shift

* work hours + Home hours

glass escalator (for men)

* advancement at rates quicker than those observed for women

the motherhood penalty

Pay gap between mothers and non-mothers under age 35 is greater than the gap between men and women

* Mothers compared with non-mothers viewed as
* less promotable,
* less likely to be recommended for management,
* Least likely to be recommended for hire

chapter 8 terms

social institutions

* an organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs

cultural universals

* a general practice found in every culture

functionalist perspective on social institutions

emphasize how social institutions fulfill essential societal needs

* replacing personnel (families, governments by managing immigration),
* teaching new members (families, schools, economy via occupational positions),
* preserving social order (families via child discipline, regulation of sexual behaviors, religion via outlining values and norms)

conflict perspective on social institutions

tend to maintain the privileges of the most powerful social positions/groups

* reflect the gendered, class, and race environments of society and this reflect structured social inequalities

interactionist perspective on social institutions

* our social behaviors as individuals is shaped by the roles and social positions we inhabit, the groups we participate in, and the institutions we work or live within 

family

* a set of people related by blood, marriage, or adoption who share the primary relationship for reproduction & caring for members of society

4 dimensions of family

* (quantitative) two or more individuals who:
* (longevity in terms of emotional and/or physical closeness) maintain an intimate relationship that they expect will last indefinitely—except for parent/child relationships
* (shared domicile) live under the same roof (when possible, desired)
* (shared resources) pool their incomes and household labor.

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nuclear family

* 1-2 parents and their child(ren)

extended family

* 2+ adult generations that may share a residence and family tasks

monogamy

one man, one woman married to each other

serial monogamy

* one spouse at a time, but having a series of monogamous relationships throughout the life course

polygamy

* a form of marriage in which an individual may have several husbands or wives simultaneously

polygyny

* a form of polygamy in which a husband may have several wives at the same time

polyandry

* a form of polygamy in which women may have several husbands at the same time

patrilineal descent

* tracing family ties through males or father’s relatives 

matrilineal descent

* tracing family ties through females or mother’s relatives

the 'second shift'

* the double burden – working outside the home, followed by child care and housework – that many women face and few men share equitably

six functions of the family

* reproduction
* protection
* socialization
* regulation of sexual behavior
* affection and companionship
* provision of social status 

conflict perspective on family

views the family as a perpetrator of inequality; transmission of poverty or wealth across generations

* The family has historically legitimized and perpetuated male advantage through norms and practices concerning authority and the exercise of power

interactionist perspective on family

focus on relationships among family members

* View the family as a site of social reproduction where meanings are negotiated and maintained by family members

functionalist perspective on family

* the family as a contributor to social stability, roles of family members

feminist perspective on family

the family as a facilitator of gender role norms. Female-headed household issues

* women occupy a subordinate position in the family and are disadvantaged in various ways outside the family because of this

the marriage price (rational choice theory applied)

* A rational choice marriage model predicts that marriage decisions are shaped by perceived marriage price which is excess services provided by wives/husbands above what would be expected in an equitable marriage.

big picture patterns in marriage & childbearing

* More first marriages are between partners of different races.
* The average age for childbearing is now younger than the average age for marriage.
* By age 25, 44% of women have had a baby, while only 38% have married.
* 2015, 40.3% of all births were to unmarried women.
* births in the context of cohabiting couples: most births to unmarried women occur in the context of cohabitation
* Today, only 23% of all unmarried births are to teenagers, 60% are to women in their twenties.
* 2019 peak age at first marriage for women was 28, in 1990 it was 24, and in 1960 it was around 20.
* Current median age at 1st marriage is 28 for women and 30 for men.
* Women who wait until age 30 to marry make much more money.
* In 2016, 10.2% of all couples are interracial.

the 'merry-go-round' pattern marriage in the US

The US has the highest rates of marriage and divorce compared with other Global North nations

* We have the highest percentage of people projected to marry, yet nearly hald of all marriages end in divorce.
* Americans “step on and off the carousel of intimate partnerships” more than in other societies, frequent marriage and frequent divorce, and more short-term cohabiting relationships.

how the US compares globally in terms of having a national family policy

The US has no national leave policy for working parents.

* 88% of all working women have no access to paid leave after childbirth. Half of new mothers are ineligible for the Family Medical Leave Act which is unpaid leave
* Only 8 total counties offer no national leave policy for new mothers
* 11% of all Americans employed by private companies have access to paid family leave and 16% of state and federal employees have access to paid family leave

chapter 10 terms