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Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

all other fluids outside of cells (includes interstitial + blood plasma)

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

fluid within cells

Sodium (Na)

main extracellular electrolyte of fluid balance

Potassium (K)

main intracellular electrolyte of fluid balance

Calcium (Ca)

extracellular electrolyte (in bone)

Magnesium (Mg)

intracellular electrolyte (in bone)

Chloride (Cl)

extracellular electrolyte (highest in hepatic cells)

Interstitial Fluid

fluid in the spaces between cells (only fluid within tissues)

Electrolytes

minerals that carry electrical charges that help maintain the body's fluid balance

Nonelectrolytes

substances that form no ions in water and cannot conduct electricity

Thirst Mechanism

osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus; driving force of water intake

Hypothalamic Osmoreceptors

sense ECF solute concentration (tries to decrease by getting the body to drink water) and regulate ADH accordingly (causes ADH release to retain water in kidneys to decrease osmolality)

Dehydration

a serious reduction in the body's water content, cells shrink without water (water from cells moves to interstitial fluid)

Hypotonic Hydration

more water than sodium is retained or ingested, cells swell and burst (as water in the interstitial fluid needs to go somewhere)

Aldosterone

hormone that stimulates the kidney to retain sodium ions (+ potassium) and water; the ONLY way to regulate potassium (increases), through reabsorption or secretion

Angiotensin II

increases blood pressure by stimulating kidneys to reabsorb more water and by releasing aldosterone

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

hormone secreted from atrial cells of the heart in response to atrial stretching and an increase in circulating blood volume; ANP has been identified as a diuretic that causes sodium loss and inhibits the thirst mechanism

Estrogen

causes sodium retention; thus, water retention (double effect with aldosterone)

Progesterone

natural diuretic, promotes loss of water in body

Glucocorticoids

cause water retention

Cardiovascular Baroreceptors

alert brain of increases in blood volume and pressure (BP change releases ANP to regulate - increase)

Potassium Function

fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contractions; high K+ concentration causes a decrease in resting membrane potential and hyper-excitability in neurons

Alkalosis

Arteriole pH \>7.45

Acidosis

Arteriole pH

Byproduct of Metabolism

Hydrogen ions (H+)

Chemical Buffer

if pH drop, we want to bind H+ and vice versa; a substance that binds H+ and removes it from solution as its concentration begins to rise, or releases H+ into solution as its concentration falls; 3 in total: bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein

Brain Stem Regulatory Centers

takes 1-3min to take action

Renal Mechanism

most potent, but require hours to days to effect pH changes

Hypercapnia

excessive carbon dioxide in the blood

Hypoventilation

decreased rate or depth of air movement into the lungs; doesn't bring enough oxygen to the lungs; can cause respiratory alkalosis

Hyperventilation

the condition of taking abnormally fast, deep breaths; can cause respiratory acidosis

Renal Regulation

adjusting bicarbonate by reabasorbing or secreting HCO3- (bicarbonate)

Bicarbonate (HCO3-)

To absorb, must excrete H+; to excrete, must retain H+

Respiratory Acidosis

pCO2 \> 45mmHg; too little CO2 in the blood (can be caused by hyperventilation - removal of too much CO2)

Respiratory Alkalosis

pCO2 < 35mmHg; too little CO2 in the blood (can be caused by hypoventilation - buildup of CO2 in blood)

Metabolic Acidosis

Low blood pH and HCO3-; not enough bicarbonate (HCO3-) in blood

Metabolic Alkalosis

High blood pH and HCO3-; too much bicarbonate (HCO3-) in blood

Bicarbonate Buffer System

Main extracellular buffer! Body can freely convert CO2 and H+ to maintain pH of blood (CO2 + H2O

Phosphate Buffer System

main urine and (small) intracellular buffer; body salts can act as weak acids or bases

Protein Buffer System

main intracellular buffer; amino acids can act as weak acids or bases

Respiratory Regulation of Acid-Base Balance

CO2 (g) + H2O(l) ↔ H2 CO3 (aq) ↔ H + (aq) + HCO3- (aq)

Gametes

sex cells; sperm & ova

Copulation

sexual intercourse

Fertilization

fusion of an egg and sperm cell

Zygote

fertilized egg

Gestation

growth process from conception to birth

Parturition

act of giving birth

Homologous Structures

similar structures of two species (in this case, men and women) that stem from common cells: ovaries and testes; clitoris and glans penis; greater vestibular glands and bulbo-urethral glands

Primary Sex Organs

testes and ovaries; produce gametes and sex hormones

Sex Hormones

progestrone, estrogen, and testosterone; regulate the development of the reproductive system and maintain functions of them

Accessory Reproductive Organs

ducts, glands, and external genitalia

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis

regulates the release of sex hormones; hypothalamus (GnRH secretion \=\> anterior pituitary (LH & FSH secretion) \=\> gonads (sex hormones & inhibin secretion) \=\> target cells

Inhibin

inhibits secretion of FSH through negative feedback to the anterior pituitary

Pubertal Development

HPG axis is inactive until puberty; as puberty approaches the hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to sex hormones & releases GnRH which causes a cascade of hormone release & secondary sex characteristics growth

Mitosis vs Meiosis

Mitosis: one division forming 2 identical cells (diploid clones); Meiosis: two divisions forming 4 genetically different cells (haploids)

Haploid

having a single set of unpaired chromosomes

Primary Male Sex Organ

testes

Epididymis

a long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature

Ductus Deferens

carries sperm from epididymis to the seminal gland

Ejaculatory Duct

tube through which semen enters the male urethra

Urethra

duct through which urine and semen are expelled

Prostate

a gland surrounding the neck of the bladder in male mammals and releasing prostatic fluid (viscous, which acidic fluid)

Bulbo-Urethral Glands

the two glands below the prostate that secrete a thick, clear mucus during sexual arousal as lubrication (also neutralizes acidic urine & vaginal secretions)

Scrotum

external sac that contains the testes and regulates their temperature

Spermatic Cord

encloses nerve fibers, blood vessels, and lymphatics that supply testes

Testicular Cancer

cancer of the testicle, usually occurring in men 15 to 35 years of age

Cryptorchidism

undescended testes

Male Duct System

epididymis \=\> ductus deferens \=\> ejaculatory duct \=\> urethra

Corpus Spongiosum

the mass of spongy tissue surrounding the male urethra within the penis (keeps urethra open during erection)

Corpus Cavernosa

two columns of erectile tissue in the shaft of the penis; normaily contracted; relaxes during erection

Erection

parasympathetic reflex that causes a release of nitric oxide allowing the arteries to relax causing an erection

Seminal Glands

glands that produce up to 75% of the volume of semen; fluid contains fructose, citric acid, etc; yellow pigment that can be seen under UV light

Prostate Cancer

3rd most common cause of cancer death in males; 1:6 men

Semen

a thick fluid containing sperm and other secretions from the male reproductive system

Semen Contents

pH ~8; sperm and accessory gland secretions
viscous alkaline fluid containing fructose, ascorbic acid, coagulating enzyme (vesiculase), and prostaglandins, and fibrinogen, ATP, antibiotics, immunosuppressants

Ejaculation

ejection of sperm and fluid from the male urethra; sympathetic spinal reflex \=\> all ducts constrict

Climax

↑ BP, ↑ HR, ↑ Respiratory Rate

Post-Ejaculation

↑ PRL, ↑ Serotonin, ↑ Oxytocin; refractory period

Erectile Dysfunction

PSNS ≠ enough nitric oxide; temporary ED caused by psychological factors; chronic ED \= blood vessel problem, potential diabetes mellitus

Spermatogenesis

production of sperm; occurs in seminiferous tubules:
1) Mitosis of Spermatogonia
2) Meiosis
3) Spermiogenesis

Mitosis of Spermatogonia

forms spermatocytes

Meiosis of Sperm

spermatocytes \=\> spermatids

Spermiogenesis

spermatids \=\> sperm

Testosterone

primary male sex hormone; produces male secondary sex characteristics: pubic, facial, axillary hair; larynx enlargement \= deeper voice; bone growth, etc

Ovaries

glands that produce the egg cells (ova) and hormones (progesterone & estrogen)

Internal Genitalia

ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina

External Genitalia

sex, or reproductive, organs visible on the outside of the body; also called genitals

Ovarian Follicles

areas within the ovary in which individual eggs (oocytes) develop

Oocyte

immature egg cell within an ovary

Fallopian Tubes

tubes which carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus and which provides the place where fertilization occurs

Infundibulum & Fimbriae

the fringed-like expanded end of the fallopian tubes that functions to "catch" an ovum as it leaves the ovary

Ampulla

the portion of fallopian tube where fertilization occurs

Peristalsis & Ciliary Action

the oocyte is carried toward the uterus through the fallopian tubes by

Ectopic Pregnancy

implantation of the fertilized egg in any site other than the normal uterine location

Uterus

female organ of reproduction used to house the developing fetus; anteverted & retroverted; major regions are: fundus, body, isthmus

Cervix

the opening to the uterus

Cervical Canal

a spindle-shaped canal extending from the uterus to the vagina

Cervical Glands

secrete mucus that blocks sperm entry except during midcycle

Cervical Cancer

malignant cell growth in the cervix; can be caused by HPV virus, multiple pregnancies or UTI's; pap smears are for detection

Uterine Wall

perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium