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Audience design
Constructing utterances to suit the audience’s knowledge.
Common ground
Information that is shared by people who engage in a conversation.
Linguistic intergroup bias
A tendency for people to characterize positive things about their ingroup using more abstract expressions, but negative things about their outgroups using more abstract expressions.
Priming
A stimulus presented to a person reminds him or her about other ideas associated with the stimulus.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
The hypothesis that the language that people use determines their thoughts.
Situation model
A mental representation of an event, object, or situation constructed at the time of comprehending a linguistic description.
Social brain hypothesis
The hypothesis that the human brain has evolved, so that humans can maintain larger ingroups.
Social networks
Networks of social relationships among individuals through which information can travel.
Theory of Mind
The human capacity to understand minds, a capacity that is made up of a collection of concepts and processes.
Automatic empathy
A social perceiver unwittingly taking on the internal state of another person.
False-belief test
An experimental procedure that assesses whether a perceiver recognizes that another person has a false belief.
Folk explanations of behavior
People’s natural explanations for why somebody did something or felt something.
Intention
An agent’s mental state of committing to perform an action believed to bring about a desired outcome.
Intentionality
The quality of an agent’s performing a behavior intentionally.
Joint attention
Two people attending to the same object and being aware that they both are attending to it.
Mirror neurons
Neurons that fire both when an action is performed and perceived.
Projection
A social perceiver’s assumption that the other person shares their wants, knowledge, or feelings.
Simulation
The process of representing another person’s mental state.
Synchrony
Two people displaying the same behaviors or having the same internal states.
Visual perspective taking
Perceiving something from another person’s spatial vantage point.
Basic-level category
The neutral, preferred category for a given object.
Concept
The mental representation of a category.
Exemplar
An example in memory that represents a particular category.
Psychological essentialism
The belief that members of a category have an unseen property that defines them.
Typicality
The difference in “goodness” of category members.
Concrete operations stage
Piagetian stage between ages 7 and 12 when children think logically about concrete situations.
Conservation problems
Problems involving transformation of objects that change a perceptually salient dimension but not quantity.
Formal operations stage
Piagetian stage starting at age 12, where adolescents gain reasoning powers of educated adults.
Object permanence task
Piagetian task assessing infants' understanding of object existence beyond sight.
Phonemic awareness
Awareness of the sound components within words.
Preoperational reasoning stage
Stage from age 2 to 7 where children can represent objects but not solve logical reasoning problems.
Qualitative changes
Large, fundamental changes in development.
Quantitative changes
Gradual, incremental changes in development.
Sociocultural theories
Theories emphasizing the influence of social relationships on children’s development.
Endophenotypes
Genetic characteristics that reflect a liability for disease.
Event-related potentials (ERP)
Measures neuronal activity in response to specific types of information.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Technique measuring oxygen levels in the brain related to neural activity.
Social brain
Neuroanatomical structures that allow understanding actions and intentions of others.
Authoritative parenting
A parenting style characterized by high expectations and good communication.
Effortful control
A temperament quality aiding in self-regulation.
Family Stress Model
Describes negative effects of family financial difficulty on child adjustment.
Gender schemas
Organized beliefs and expectations about gender.
Goodness of fit
Match between child’s temperament and parental care that influences development.
Security of attachment
An infant’s confidence in caregiver's sensitivity and responsiveness.
Social referencing
Consulting emotional expressions of others to evaluate responses to uncertain situations.
Temperament
Early differences in reactivity and self-regulation affecting personality.
Cultural display rules
Learned rules managing emotional expressions according to social circumstances.
Interpersonal functions of emotion
Effects of one's emotions on relationships.
Intrapersonal functions of emotion
Effects of emotion within oneself.
Social and cultural functions of emotion
Effects of emotions on societal and cultural operations.
Attachment behavioral system
Motivational system evolved to maintain proximity to primary attachment figure.
Attachment behaviors
Behaviors attracting a primary attachment figure's attention.
Attachment figure
Primary safe haven and secure base for an individual.
Attachment patterns
Individual differences in secure vs. insecure attachment.
Strange situation
Task involving separating and reuniting infants with caregivers to study attachment.
Deviant peer contagion
Spread of problem behaviors among adolescents.
Differential susceptibility
Genetic responsiveness to environmental experiences.
Foreclosure
Committing to an identity without exploring options.
Homophily
Tendency for adolescents to associate with similar peers.
Identity achievement
Explored options and made commitments regarding identity.
Identity diffusion
Neither exploring nor committing to roles or ideologies.
Moratorium
Actively exploring options without identity commitments.
Psychological control
Intrusion into adolescents' emotional and cognitive worlds by parents.
Emerging adulthood
Life stage from ages 18 to 25 characterized by identity exploration.
Individualism
Belief system valuing freedom and independence.
Age identity
How old people feel compared to their chronological age.
Autobiographical narratives
Research method for understanding individual life themes.
Convoy Model of Social Relations
Theory on how social exchanges change with age.
Cross-sectional studies
Research method comparing age group differences.
Crystallized intelligence
Intellectual ability relying on knowledge and experience.
Fluid intelligence
Intelligence involving logical reasoning and problem-solving.
Global subjective well-being
Individuals' perceptions and satisfaction with their lives.
Hedonic well-being
Emotional experiences including positive and negative affect.
Inhibitory functioning
Ability to suppress attention to less relevant information.
Intra- and inter-individual differences
Differences in development observed within or between individuals.
Life course theories
Theories emphasizing social expectations and events affecting development.
Life span theories
Theories focusing on differences in developmental trajectories.
Longitudinal studies
Research method tracking changes over multiple time points.
Psychometric approach
Examines performance on tests of intellectual functioning.
Self-perceptions of aging
Individual views on their aging process.
Social network
Network of people closely connected providing support.
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Theory explaining reduction of social partners in older adulthood.
Successful aging
Avoiding disease and maintaining high levels of functioning.
Working memory
System for simultaneously storing and manipulating information.
G
General factor common to cognitive ability measures.
IQ
Score obtained from intelligence measures compared to others.
Norm
Range of scores determined from representative sample assessments.
Standardize
Giving assessments in the same manner to all.
Stereotype threat
Concern about conforming to a stereotype affecting performance.
Satisfaction
Correspondence between individual needs and environmental rewards.
Satisfactoriness
Correspondence between individual abilities and environmental requirements.
Specific abilities
Cognitive abilities with significant components of general intelligence.
Under-determined causal models
Psychological frameworks neglecting critical determinants.
Anchoring
Bias influenced by an initial arbitrary anchor.
Bounded awareness
Failing to notice obvious information.
Bounded ethicality
Systematic limitations in ethics without awareness.
Bounded rationality
Model suggesting decisions are limited by cognitive capacities.
Bounded self-interest
Predictable ways individuals consider others' outcomes.
Bounded willpower
Greater weight placed on present concerns over future.
Framing
Bias affected by how information is presented.
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