lecture 1(Final)

The two main cell types in the nervous system are ___ and ___.

neurons and glia

___ are specialized for electrical signaling and carry information in the nervous system.

Neurons

___ support, modulate, and maintain the neuronal environment.

Glia

The brain has roughly an ___ number of neurons and glia.

equal

The ___, also called the cell body, contains the nucleus and organelles.

soma

___ are tree-like structures that receive synaptic input from other neurons.

Dendrites

The ___ is the long projection that propagates electrical signals called action potentials.

axon

The electrical signal that travels down the axon is called an ___.

action potential

___ are the structures at the end of an axon that form synapses and transmit signals to other neurons.

Axon terminals

A ___ is the connection between an axon terminal and the next cell, where neurotransmitters pass signals.

synapse

Neurons receive signals from other cells through ___, the ___, and sometimes the axon.

dendrites, soma (cell body)

The site where signals are summed and the decision to fire an action potential is made is the ___.

axon hillock

If the integrated signals are strong enough, the neuron generates an ___.

action potential

Once initiated, an action potential travels rapidly and without weakening down the ___.

axon

At the axon terminals, influx of ___ ions triggers neurotransmitter release.

calcium

At the ___, neurotransmitters are released into the gap and influence the next neuron.

synapse

At rest, neurons are ___, with a membrane potential of about –70 mV.

polarized

The resting membrane potential of a neuron is created by unequal distributions of ions such as ___, ___, ___, and ___.

Na\, K_\ Cl- Ca{2+}

When the membrane is depolarized beyond ___, an action potential is triggered.

threshold

During depolarization, ___ ions rush into the cell, while during repolarization ___ ions flow out.

Na\{+}; K\+}

Action potentials are ___, meaning they either happen fully or not at all.

all-or-none

At the axon terminal, influx of ___ ions causes neurotransmitter release.

Ca2+}

Binding of neurotransmitters that increases the chance of firing is called an ___, while binding that decreases firing is called an ___.

EPSP; IPSP

A ___ is a group of interconnected neurons that process specific information.

neural circuit

Neural circuits follow the basic flow of ___ → ___ → ___.

input → processing → output

Neural circuits form during development through ___, ___, and ___.

axon guidance, synapse formation, pruning

Circuits are shaped by experience and activity through ___-dependent plasticity.

activity

A single neuron can have thousands of ___, allowing circuits to integrate excitatory and inhibitory inputs.

synapses

Balance of excitatory and inhibitory activity in circuits enables ___, ___, and ___.

filtering, amplification, decision-making

A simple reflex arc is an example of a ___ circuit, while learning and memory involve ___ circuits.

simple; complex

___ are excitable cells that conduct action potentials, while ___ support and modulate without firing action potentials.

Neurons; glia

___ are glial cells that surround neurons, provide metabolic support, regulate neurotransmitter uptake and ion balance, and contribute to the blood-brain barrier.

Astrocytes

___ form myelin in the CNS, while ___ form myelin in the PNS.

Oligodendrocytes; Schwann cells

___ act as the immune cells of the brain, surveying the environment, removing debris, and responding to injury.

Microglia

___ cells line the ventricles of the brain and help produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid.

Ependymal

___ stem cells can divide in adulthood and give rise to new neurons and glia.

Glial

Neurons rarely ___ in adulthood, but many glial cells can.

divide

The ___ consists of the brain and spinal cord and serves as the command center of the nervous system.

CNS (central nervous system)

The ___ includes all nerves outside the CNS and relays information between the body and the CNS.

PNS (peripheral nervous system)

The PNS acts like ___ for signals traveling between the body and the brain.

highways/communication lines

The division of the PNS that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles is the ___.

somatic nervous system

The division of the PNS that controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion is the ___.

autonomic nervous system

___ pathways bring sensory information from the body into the CNS.

Afferent

___ pathways carry motor commands out of the CNS to muscles and organs.

Efferent

A simple reflex arc follows the order ___ → ___ → ___.

Afferent → Interneuron → Efferent

A useful mnemonic is ___ = Arrive, ___ = Exit.

Afferent; Efferent

The ___ nervous system is the branch of the PNS controlling voluntary movement and reflexes.

somatic

The ___ nervous system is the branch of the PNS controlling involuntary functions of smooth muscle, heart, and glands.

autonomic

The somatic nervous system uses ___ motor neuron(s) per pathway, making control direct and fast.

one

The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: ___ (“fight or flight”) and ___ (“rest and digest”).

sympathetic; parasympathetic

The ___ division of the ANS increases heart rate and mobilizes energy, while the ___ division slows heart rate and promotes digestion.

sympathetic; parasympathetic

The CNS (brain & spinal cord) processes and interprets information, while the ___ delivers sensory input to the CNS and carries motor output to muscles and organs.

PNS

Continuous two-way communication between the CNS and PNS allows ___, ___, and ___.

perception, voluntary actions, homeostasis

The ___ is the largest part of the brain, responsible for higher functions like perception, decision-making, movement, language, and memory.

cerebrum

The ___ relays sensory and motor signals to the cortex, while the ___ regulates homeostasis and hormones.

thalamus; hypothalamus

The ___ (midbrain, pons, medulla) controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate.

brainstem

The ___ coordinates movement and balance and is involved in motor learning.

cerebellum

The ___ acts as a conduit for signals to and from the body and integrates reflexes.

spinal cord

The ___ lobe handles decision-making and movement, while the ___ lobe processes touch and body position.

frontal; parietal

The ___ lobe is associated with hearing, memory, and language, while the ___ lobe processes vision.

temporal; occipital

The ___ is a subcortical structure that relays sensory signals; the ___ helps with motor planning and reward.

thalamus; basal ganglia

The ___ consolidates memory, while the ___ is critical for emotion tied to experience.

hippocampus; amygdala

The goal of functional brain mapping is to identify which brain ___ support specific functions and how they work together in ___.

regions; networks

___ measures brain activity based on blood flow changes, while ___ and ___ measure electrical/magnetic activity with excellent timing.

fMRI; EEG; MEG

___ studies and brain ___ provide causal insights by observing effects of damage or stimulation.

Lesion; stimulation

Large-scale maps of brain regions and connections are called brain ___ and ___.

atlases; connectomics

Functional brain mapping can localize ___, ___, and ___ areas, and is used in neurosurgery planning and disease research.

language; motor; sensory

___ matter is composed mostly of myelinated axons that speed up action potentials and connect brain regions.

White

___ matter contains neuronal cell bodies and glia, and is important for processing movement, memory, and emotions.

Gray

White matter volume peaks in ___ age, while gray matter is fully developed by the ___.

middle; 20s

The ___ root of the spinal cord carries sensory signals into the CNS, while the ___ root carries motor signals out.

dorsal; ventral

___ tracts carry sensory information up to the brain, while ___ tracts carry motor commands down from the brain.

Ascending; Descending

The spinal cord is organized into ___, ___, ___, and ___ regions.

cervical; thoracic; lumbar; sacral

The ___ senses include vision, hearing, taste, smell, and balance.

special

The ___ senses include touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception.

somatosensory

The ___ tract carries voluntary motor commands from the cortex to the spinal cord and skeletal muscles.

corticospinal

A rapid, automatic motor response such as the knee-jerk is called a ___.

reflex arc

___, ___, and ___ are electrophysiological methods for measuring neuronal electrical activity.

Patch-clamp; EEG; MEG

___ and ___ microscopy provide structural images of neurons, while ___ and ___ imaging show activity in real time.

Light; electron; fMRI; calcium

Tools such as ___, ___ models, optogenetics, and chemogenetics allow molecular and genetic control of neurons.

CRISPR; transgenic

___ approaches, including animal models and cognitive/motor tests, link neural activity to behavior.

Behavioral

The nervous system is integrative, linking ___ → ___ → ___ → ___ → behavior.

molecules; cells; circuits; systems

Disorders like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s involve ___, while depression and schizophrenia are ___ disorders.

neurodegeneration; psychiatric

Injury and repair in the nervous system includes ___, ___, and neuroprosthetics.

stroke; spinal cord injury