AP Psychology- Unit 2 (Cognition)

Hierarchies (as they pertain to grouping)

• a system where individuals or concepts are organized into ranked levels, essentially creating a structured order based on a specific criteria

• often used to explain how information is categorized and processed in the brain

Categories (as they pertain to grouping)

• cognitive process of mentally sorting and organizing stimuli (objects, ideas, or events) into distinct groups based on shared characteristics or attributes

• allows us to understand and interpret information more efficiently

Elaborative Rehearsal

memory strategy where new information is actively linked to existing knowledge, creating a deeper level of processing and enhancing the likelihood of long-term retention and recall

Maintenance Rehearsal

• process of repeatedly saying or thinking about a piece of information to keep it active in your short-term memory

• shallow level of processing

Recency Effect

tendency for people to remember the most recently presented information or items in a sequence better than those presented earlier

Cognition

process involving thought and knowledge that includes mental activities such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Bottom-Up Processing

analysis begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Schema

a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving

Gestalt Psychology

• movement in psychology

• we perceive objects as well-organized patterns rather than separate components

• based on the concepts of “grouping”

  • proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, connectedness, figure/ground relationships

Law of Closure

people tend to fill in blanks to perceive a complete object whenever an external stimuli partially matches that object

Figure/Ground Relationships

the ability of our brain to distinguish an object or figure from its background

Law of Proximity

principle that objects that are closer together are perceived as more related than objects that are farther apart

Selective Attention

process of reacting to certain stimuli selectively when several occur simultaneously

Cocktail Party Effect

the ability to focus on a single sound while filtering out other distracting sounds

Inattentional Blindness

occurs when someone fails to notice an unexpected object or event that is in plain sight

Change Blindness

occurs when a person doesn’t notice a change in a visual blindness due to a lack of attention to that aspect of the scene

Binocular Depth Cues

• rely on the coordinated effort of both eyes to perceive depth

• slight differences in the images projected onto each retina

Retinal Disparity

• slight difference between right + left retinal images

• different positions of the eyes produces a disparity of visual angle

• provides an important cue to depth perception

Convergence

the rotation of the 2 eyes inward toward an object so that the image falls on corresponding points on the foveas

Texture Gradient

idea that the details of an object become less apparent as it moves farther away

Memory Consolidation

• process of the brain transforming short-term memories into more stable, long lasting memories

• strengthens and stabilizes newly encoded information

• involves neural changes in the brain over time (typically the hippocampus)

Apparent Movement

the perception of continuous movement when there is none

Prototypes

mental representation of idealized form of an object or concept

3 Levels of Processing…

Shallowest:

• Structural → visual appearance

• Phonemic → sound

• Semantic → meaning

Deepest

Law of Effect

• responses that produce a satisfying effect after a particular stimulus are likely to occur again

• responses that produce a negative effect after a particular stimulus are less likely to occur again

Split-Half Reliability

measure of reliability in which a test is split into 2 parts and scores on both halves are compared

Construct Validity

how well a test or tool measures the construct that it was designed to measure

Test-Retest Reliability

the degree to which test results are consistent over time when the same participants take the same test at different times

Repression (Psychodynamic)

• defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously pushes distressing thoughts, memories, or emotions out of conscious awareness

• happens automatically without conscious awareness

• buries them to avoid emotional pain and anxiety

Constructive Memory

idea that when we recall a memory, our brain actively reconstructs it by incorporating new information, perceptions, beliefs, and expectations

Misinformation Effect

where a person’s memory of an event is altered or distorted after being exposed to misleading information about that event

Levels of Processing Model

• cognitive psychology theory that described how the depth of mental processing affects how well information is remembered

• shallow processing + deep processing

Law of Similarity

principle that described how the brain organizes visual information by grouping similar elements together

Perceptual Set

cognitive bias that influences how people perceive and interpret sensory information based on their expectations, past experiences, and other factors

Monocular Depth Cues

visual cues that allow people to perceive depth and distance using only one eye

Relative Clarity

idea that objects farther away appear hazier and less sharp than closer objects

Relative Size

helps us perceive how far away objects are based on their size in relation to other objects

Multi-Store Model

• theory that describes how information is stored and processed in the human mind

• proposes that memory is made up of 3 separate systems

Linear Perspective

visual perception where parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, creating the illusion of depth, and only requiring one eye to perceive it

Interposition

helps people perceive depth by using the positioning of objects in a scene

Algorithms

problem solving strategy for decision making

Heuristics

mental shortcut that allows an individual to make a decision, pass judgement, or solve a problem quickly (from past experience)

• Availability

• Representativeness

Mental Set

the brain’s tendency to stick with the most familiar solution to a problem and ignore alternatives

Priming

when an individual’s exposure to a certain stimulus influences their response to a subsequent prompt, without awareness

ex: “pepper” → “salt and pepper”

Framing

cognitive bias that described how the presentation of information influences a person’s decisions

Gambler’s Fallacy

cognitive bias in which someone believes that the probability of an event changed based on a series of previous events

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

cognitive bias that describes one tendency to continue an endeavor despite the current cost outweighing the benefits

Divergent Thinking

thought process that involves generating multiple ideas or solutions to a problem

Convergent Thinking

cognitive process that involves analyzing information to reach a single, correct solution to a problem

Explicit Memory

conscious recollection of facts, events, and personal experiences

Episodic Memory

ability to consciously remember and recall specific past events and the contextual details surrounding them

Implicit Memory

• memory for information that is expressed unconsciously or automatically through improved performance on related tasks

• knowledge slowly gained

• ex: learning to ride a bike

Procedural Memory

process of retrieving information necessary to perform learned skills

ex: talking, eating, walking

Prospective Memory

• ability to remember to carry out a planned action in the future

• involves retaining and activating intentions at the right time and place

Long-Term Potentiation

process that strengthens connections between neurons through repeated stimulation

Working Memory Model

• theoretical framework that explains how the working memory system functions

• proposes that short-term memory is made up of multiple components that work together

Primary Memory System

short-term memory system that holds information for a brief period of time

Working Memory

system that temporarily stores and manipulates information to complete cognitive tasks

Visuospatial Sketchpad

ability to temporarily hold visual and spacial information

ex: where the car is parked

Central Executive

part of working memory that controls and coordinates other processes, such as attention, memory retrieval, and decision making

Phonological Loop

component of working memory that stores and processes verbal and auditory information

Memory Retention

the ability to store and retrieve information over a period of time

Spacing Effect

• information better remembered when study sessions are spaced out over time

• distributed rather than crammed

Chunking

• dividing large pieces of information into smaller, more manageable units

• easier to remember and store information in short-term memory

Deep Encoding

• processing information that involves relating it to other ideas, words, or prior knowledge

• leads to long-term memory retention and recall

• relates to personal experiences and emotions

Shallow Encoding

• processing information that focuses on the surface-level characteristics of a stimulus, such as its appearance or sound

• information is retained for a short time but not moved to long-term memory

Effortful Processing

process of actively encoding information through conscious attention and effort

Automatic Processing

mental process that involves performing tasks with little to no conscious thought

Iconic Memory

• type of sensory memory that stores visual information for a brief period of time after the physical image is no longer present

• allows people to recall visual images for a few milliseconds after the image has disappeared

Retrograde Amnesia

memory loss where a person is unable to recall events or information that occurred before a specific traumatic event or brain injury

Anterograde Amnesia

memory loss where a person is unable to form new memories after a traumatic event

Encoding Failure

inability to effectively store information in memory due to insufficient processing during the initial encoding stage

Assimilation

cognitive process of making new information fit in with your existing understanding of the world

Accommodation

modifying our cognitive schemas in order to incorporate new information or experiences

Executive Functions

cognitive skills that help people manage everyday tasks, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

Retroactive Interference

newer information pushes out older, similar information

Proactive Interference

older information makes it more difficult to carry out the present task

Availability Heuristic

judging how likely a certain event is to happen, based on how easily information regarding this topic is available

Representativeness Heuristic

a mental shortcut in which one thinks of the best example or prototype of a given category

Functional Fixedness

cognitive bias that limits a person’s ability to use an object for more than it’s intended purpose

Semantic Memory

long-term storage of general knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and word meanings

Primacy Effect

tendency for people to remember information presented at the beginning of a list or sequence better than information presented later on

Mnemonic Devices

memory aid technique used to help students recall information more easily by associating it with something easily remembered

ex: acronyms, rhymes, or vivid imagery

Encoding

process of perceiving and learning new information and putting it into the memory system

Echoic Memory

• brief sensory memory of audible sounds

• allows the brain to retain spoken syllable is order for the brain to process them into intelligible speech

Sensory Memory

short-term shortage of information gathered through the 5 senses

Long-Term Memory

the process of storing and retrieving information for extended periods, ranging from days to a lifetime

Autobiographical Memory

a person’s recollection of significant events and experiences from their own life, which contributes to their sense of self

Alzheimer’s Disease

progressively deteriorates an individual’s memory, cognitive abilities, and personality

symptoms: difficulty learning new info in early stages + severe decline in thinking, speaking, and performing basic tasks

Infantile Amnesia

inability of adults to recall personal memories from their early childhood (before 3-4)

Context-Dependent Memory

information is best recalled when the retrieval environment closely matches the context in which it was originally learned

Mood-Congruent Memory

• tendency to recall memories that align with your current emotional state

• more likely to remember positive experiences when you’re feeling happy

State-Dependent Memory

individuals are more likely to recall information when their current physiological or psychological state closely matches the state they were in when the information was learned

Testing Effect

actively retrieving information from memory through self-testing or practice tests leads to better long-term retention

Metacognition

• awareness and understanding of one’s own thought process

• “thinking about thinking”

• ability to reflect on and analyse one’s own thinking patterns

Forgetting Curve

graphical representation illustrating the rapid decline of memory retention over time

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

experience of being unable to recall a specific word or name, even though you feel like you know it

“it’s on the tip of my tongue”

Source Amnesia

inability to recall the origin or source of a memory

Imagination Inflation

where repeatedly imagining an event that never happened increases a person’s confidence that it actually occurred

g (general intelligence)

idea that an individual’s overall intelligence is a compilation of different specific abilities