CogNeuro

cognitive psychology

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory and reasoning

pedagogical approach

the scaffolding of learning by instruction

equipotential

equally responsible for enabling learning to occur

law of mass action

where performance is determined by the quantity of nervous tissue removed and is independent of any particular area

behavioural neuroscience

an approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes

cognitive neuroscience

the field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity

neurons

cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks

Glia

cells that support the functionality of neurons by providing physical support, supplying nutrients and enhancing neuronal communication

cell body (soma)

largest component of neuron that coordinates the information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive

dendrites

receive information from other neurons and relay it to the cell body

axon

transmits information to other neurons, muscles or glands
each neuron has one

myelin sheath

an insulating layer of fatty material made up of glial cells

synapse

the junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another

sensory neurons

receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord
have specialized endings on their dendrites that receive signals for light, sound, touch, taste and smell

motor neurons

carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement
often have long axons that can stretch to muscles at our extremities

interneurons

connect sensory neurons, motor neurons or other interneurons
some carry information from sensory neurons into the nervous system, others carry information from nervous system to motor neurons, others perform a variety of information-processing functions within the nervous system
work together in small circuits to perform simple tasks

purkinje cell

type of interneuron
carries information from cerebellum to rest of the brain and spinal cord
have dense, elaborate dendrites that resemble bushes

pyramidal cells

found in cerebral cortex
triangular cell body and single long dendrite among many smaller dendrites

bipolar cells

type of sensory neuron found in retinas of the eye
have single axon and a few dendrites

resting potential

the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane
arises from the difference in concentrations of ions inside and outside the neuron's cell membrane

action potential

an electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron's axon to the synapse
occurs only when the electric shock reaches a certain level or threshold

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

terminal buttons

knoblike structures that branch out from an axon
filled with tiny vesicles that contain neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron's dendrites

receptors

parts of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmitters and initiate a new electric signal

acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including voluntary motor control
malfunction can be with Alzheimers disease causing the neurons to deteriorate

dopamine

a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behaviour, motivation, pleasure and emotional arousal
high levels linked to schizophrenia
lower levels produce tremors and decreased mobility (parkinsons)

glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information transmission throughout the brain
oversupply can overstimulate brain producing migraines and seizures

gamma-aminobutryic acid (GABA)

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
inhibitory neurotransmitters stop the firing of neurons
undersupply is linked to seizures tremors and insomnia

Noradrenaline

a neurotransmitter that influences mood and arousal
particularly involved in states of vigilance or a heightened awareness of dangers in the environment
undersupply can depress mood

serotonin

involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating and aggressive behaviour
undersupply linked to depression

endorphins

chemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centres of the brain
lack of could lower pain threshold or reduce ability to self-soothe

agonists

drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

antagonists

drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter

L-Dopa (agonist)

agonist
drugs increase production of neurotransmitters

amphetamine (agonist)

agonist
drugs increase release of neurotransmitters

clonodine (agonist)

agonist
drugs bind to autoreceptors and block their inhibitory effect

prozac and cocaine (agonist)

agonist
drugs block the deactivation or reuptake of neurotransmitters

nicotine (agonist)

agonist
drugs bind to postsynaptic receptors and activate them or increase the neurotransmitter effect

alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (antagonist)

antagonist
drugs block the production of neurotransmitters

reserpine (antagonist)

antagonist
drugs cause depletion of neurotransmitters in vesicles

botulinum toxin (antagonist)

antagonist
drugs block the release of neurotransmitters

caffeine (antagonist)

antagonist
drugs activate autoreceptors so that they inhibit release of neurotransmitters

propranalol, haloperidol (antagonist)

antagonist
drugs bind to postsynaptic receptors and block neurotransmitter binding

nervous system

an interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body

central nervous system (CNS)

composed of the brain and spinal cord
receives sensory information from the external world, processes and coordinates this information and sends command to the skeletal and muscular systems for action

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

connects the central nervous system to the body's organs and muscles
composed of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

somatic nervous system

a set of nerves that convey information into and out of the CNS
humans have conscious control over this system and use it to perceive, think and coordinate their behaviours

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

a set of nerves that carry involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs and glands
works on its own to regulate bodily systems, largely outside conscious control
has two major subdivisions - sympathetic nervous system , parasympathetic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system

a set of nerves that prepare the body for action in threatening situations
nerves in this system emanate from the top and bottom of the spinal cord and connect to a variety of organs
coordinates the control of these organs for fight-or-flight response

parasympathetic nervous system

helps the body return to a normal resting rate

spinal reflexes

simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions
eg if you touch a candle flame the sensory neurons register pain and send inputs directly into your spinal cord

hindbrain

an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord
sometimes called brainstem

medulla

an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation and respiration

reticular formation

small cluster of neurons in medulla
regulates sleep, wakefulness and levels of arousal

cerebellum

a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills
damage produces impairments in coordination and balance

pons

major area of hindbrain
a structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

midbrain

two main structures tectum and tegmentum

tectum (dorsal)

orients an organism in the environment
receives stimulus input from the eyes, ears and skin and moves the organism in a coordinated way towards the stimulus

tegmentum (ventral)

involved in movement and arousal
helps to orient an organism towards sensory stimuli
parts are involved in pleasure seeking and motivation

substantia nigra

part of the tegmentum
high level of dopamine gives it dark colour
pale colour in parkinsons disease

forebrain

controls complex cognitive, emotional, sensory and motor functions
divided into cerebral cortex and subcortical structures

cerebral cortex

the outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye and divided into two hemispheres

subcortical structures

areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very centre of the brain
thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, limbic system and basal ganglia

thalamus

relays and filters information from the sense and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex
receives inputs from all the major senses except smell

hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst and sexual behaviour
clusters of neurons in hypothalamus oversee a wide range of basic behaviours

pituitary gland

the 'master gland' of the body's hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body

limbic system

group of forebrain structures which includes amygdala and hippocampus, which are involved in motivation, emotion, learning and memory
forms a doughnut shaped boundary where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex

hippocampus

critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex

amygdala

located at the tip of each horn of the hippocampus, plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories

basal ganglia

set of subcortical structures that direct intentional movements
located near the thalamus and hypothalamus
receive input from the cerebral cortex and send outputs to the motor centres in the brainsterm

contralateral control

your right cerebral hemisphere perceives stimuli from and controls movement on the left side of your body
whereas
your left cerebral hemisphere perceives stimuli from and controls movements on the right side of your body

corpus callosum

a thick band of nerve fibres that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres

eg means that information received in the right hemisphere can pass through this and be registered virtually instantly in the left hemisphere

lobes in cerebral cortex

occipital lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and frontal lobe

occipital lobe

located at back of cerebral cortex
processes visual information

parietal lobe

located in front of the occipital lobe
processing information about touch
contains the somatosensory cortex

somatosensory cortex

the outermost layer of the parietal lobe area containing a representation of the body map

mirror neurons

cells that are active when performing an action oneself or when observing the same action performed by another
discovered by gallese et al

temporal lobe

located on lower side of each hemisphere
responsible for hearing and language
contains primary auditory cortex

frontal lobe

sits behind the forehead
has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory and judgement

association areas

composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex

primary visual cortex

the outermost layer of the occipital lobe area where visual information is processed

primary auditory cortex

the outermost layer of the temporal lobe area where auditory information is processed

brain plasticity

neurons in the brain can be shaped by experience and the environment

commissures

neural fibres that cross between the left and right side of the nervous system to allow communication between neurons at symmetrical positions on either side of the body

gene

the unit of hereditary transmission that instructs the cell what to become
by building proteins from amino acids
built from strands of DNA
organized into chromosomes

chromosomes

strands of DNA wound around each other in a double helix configuration
every cell in our body has 23 pairs of chromosomes

epigenetics

the mechanisms of interaction between the environment and genes

the way nature and nurture work together

genetic methylation

silences a gene and is believed to play a major role in long-term changes that shape our development

heritability

a measure of the variability of behavioural traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors

calculated as a proportion
numerical value ranges from 0 to 1
heritability of 0 means that genes do not contribute to individual differences in the behavioural trait
heritability of 1 means that genes are the only reason for the individual differences

four important points about heritability

it is an abstract concept
is a population concept
dependent on the environment
not fate

vegetative state

a state of wakefulness without awareness and overt communication

electroencephalogram (EEG)

a device used to record electrical activity in the brain

electrodes placed on the outside of the head - even though source of electrical activity in synapses and action potentials is far removed from these wires - the electric signals can be amplified several thousand times by the EEG

feature detectors

neurons in the visual cortex
selectively respond to certain aspects of a visual image

computerized axial tomography (CT)

a technique that recombines multiple X-ray photographs into a single image

can show different densities of tissue in the brain
can be used to locate lesions or tumours

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a technique that uses a powerful magnet to cause charged molecules in soft tissue to realign to produce measurable field distortions

brief but powerful magnetic pulses cause molecules in the brain tissue to twist slightly and then relax - releases a small amount of energy
differently charged molecules respond differently to the magnetic pulses - so the energy signals revea; brain structures with a different molecular compositions

positron emission tomography (PET)

a technique that uses radioactive markers to measure blood flow in the brain

harmless radioactive substance is injected into a person's bloodstream and then the brain is scanned by radiation detectors as the person performs perceptual or cognitive tasks
areas of the brain activated in these tasks demand more energy and greater blood flow - higher amount of radioactivity in that region

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

a technique that uses a powerful magnet to cause haemoglobin molecules to realign to measure blood flow in the brain

blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signals

a measure of the relative blood flow to locations that are activated in the brain

long-term memory

a place where information is stored for hours, days, weeks or years