Biology Chapter 7-11 (copy)

Photosynthesis

The process by which solar energy and carbon dioxide are converted into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates.

Autotrophs

Organisms that make their own food, including plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that obtain carbon and energy by consuming other organisms, as they cannot produce their own food.

Stomata

Small openings in the lower epidermis of plant leaves that allow carbon dioxide in and oxygen and water out.

Chloroplasts

Organelles where photosynthesis occurs, containing stroma and thylakoids.

Oxidation

A chemical reaction in which a molecule loses electrons, often seen as a loss of hydrogen.

Reduction

A chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons, often seen as a gain of hydrogen.

Redox reaction

A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons between molecules; one molecule is oxidized while another is reduced.

Calvin cycle

The series of reactions in photosynthesis that produces carbohydrates without requiring light.

Glycolysis

The first phase of cellular respiration, taking place in the cytoplasm, where glucose is broken down into pyruvate.

Electron transport chain

A series of protein carriers on the inner membrane of mitochondria that transfers electrons, producing ATP and water.

Fermentation

An anaerobic process that produces limited ATP by converting pyruvate into lactate or ethanol in the absence of oxygen.

Metabolism

All chemical reactions that occur within an organism's cells.

Anabolism

The metabolic process that builds larger molecules from smaller ones.

Catabolism

The metabolic process that breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones.

Karyotype

A pictorial display of human chromosomes arranged by pairs according to their size and shape.

Homologous chromosomes

Chromosomes that are similar in size, shape, and genetic content, pairing during meiosis.

Diploid

A cell condition with two sets of chromosomes, typical of somatic (body) cells in humans (46 chromosomes).

Haploid

A cell condition with one set of chromosomes, typical of gametes (sperm and egg) in humans (23 chromosomes).

Crossing over

The exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during meiosis, leading to genetic diversity.

Independent assortment

The random separation of homologous chromosome pairs during gamete formation in meiosis.

Aneuploidy

A condition characterized by having an abnormal number of chromosomes, such as trisomy 21 (Down syndrome).

Gene

A unit of heredity existing in alleles on chromosomes, responsible for inherited traits.

Dominant allele

The allele that is expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygous individual.

Recessive allele

The allele that is masked in the phenotype of a heterozygous individual.

Phenotype

The physical appearance or observable traits of an individual determined by genotype.

Genotype

The genetic makeup or allele combinations present in an individual.

Punnett square

A diagram used to predict the genetic outcome of a cross between two organisms.

Briefly describe the stages of the cell cycle

G1: Normal growth and function

S: DNA replication

G2: Final preparation for division

Briefly describe the checkpoints of the cell cycle

G1:Is cell damaged: can it be repaired

G2: Was DNA replicated properly

M: Are chromosomes lined up properly in cell center

Briefly describe the phases of mitosis

Prophase: chromatin condense into chromosomes; nuclear envelope is formed

Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase: Chromosomes reach the ends of the cell; nuclear envelope reforms

Cytokinesis: Cell is divided into two cells.

Binary fusion

Splitting of a parent cell into two daughter cells; serves as an asexual form of reproduction in bacteria

Chromatid

Following replication, a chromosome consists of a pair of sister chromatids, held together at the centromere; each chromatid is comprised of a single DNA helix

Gamete

Haploid sex cell

Briefly describe the phases of meiosis

Prophase I: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; nuclear envelope fragments; homologues pair up; crossing over occurs between the non sister chromatids

Metaphase I: Homologues pairs lined up at metaphase plate in the center of the cell

Anaphase I: Homologues separate and are pulled to opposite poles

Telophase I: Chromosomes reach poles; new nuclear envelope may form

Cytokinesis: Divides into two cells

Prophase II: Cells have one chromosomes from each homologues pair

Metaphase II: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate in the center of the cell

Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase II: Chromosomes reach the ends of the cell; new nuclear envelope is formed

Cytokinesis: Divides cells into a total of four cells

What type of plants use CAM photosynthesis

The type of plants that use CAM photosynthesis are a family of flowering succulent plants, like pineapples and cactus, that live in warm dry regions of the world.

What type of plants use C4 photosynthesis

The type of plants that use C4 photosynthesis are plants that live in hot dry climates like sugar cane, corn, and Bermuda grass.

What’s the difference between C3 photosynthesis and CAM and C4 photosynthesis

C3 photosynthesis produces a 3-carbon molecule while C4 photosynthesis and CAM photosynthesis produce a 4-carbon molecule

Briefly describe how light dependent reactions in photosynthesis produce NADPH

During the light reactions, solar energy energizes electrons, which move down an electron transport chain. As the electrons move down the chain, which consists of proteins in the cell membrane, energy is released and captured to produce ATP molecules. Energized electrons are also taken up by NADP+, which is reduced and becomes NADPH. 

How is G3P produced

G3P is produced when carbon dioxide enters the Calvinist cycle, the CO2 then turns into C6 which then turns into 3PG. 3PG then turns into BPG which in turn turns into G3P.

What is the purpose of oxygen in aerobic cellular respiration

The purpose of oxygen in aerobic cellular respiration is to produce CO2 and H2O.

What is the main electron carrier for aerobic cellular respiration

The main electron carrier for aerobic cellular respiration is NADH.

Preparatory reaction

takes place in the mitochondria. Pyruvate is broken down from a 3-carbon molecule to a 2-carbon acetyl group, and a 1-carbon molecule is released. Reaction occurs twice per glucose molecule.

The citric acid cycle

takes place in the mitochondria. Each acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, several steps are used to convert citrate back into oxaloacetate, and during these steps NAD+ is reduced to NADH