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Photosynthesis
The process by which solar energy and carbon dioxide are converted into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates.
Autotrophs
Organisms that make their own food, including plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
Heterotrophs
Organisms that obtain carbon and energy by consuming other organisms, as they cannot produce their own food.
Stomata
Small openings in the lower epidermis of plant leaves that allow carbon dioxide in and oxygen and water out.
Chloroplasts
Organelles where photosynthesis occurs, containing stroma and thylakoids.
Oxidation
A chemical reaction in which a molecule loses electrons, often seen as a loss of hydrogen.
Reduction
A chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons, often seen as a gain of hydrogen.
Redox reaction
A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons between molecules; one molecule is oxidized while another is reduced.
Calvin cycle
The series of reactions in photosynthesis that produces carbohydrates without requiring light.
Glycolysis
The first phase of cellular respiration, taking place in the cytoplasm, where glucose is broken down into pyruvate.
Electron transport chain
A series of protein carriers on the inner membrane of mitochondria that transfers electrons, producing ATP and water.
Fermentation
An anaerobic process that produces limited ATP by converting pyruvate into lactate or ethanol in the absence of oxygen.
Metabolism
All chemical reactions that occur within an organism's cells.
Anabolism
The metabolic process that builds larger molecules from smaller ones.
Catabolism
The metabolic process that breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones.
Karyotype
A pictorial display of human chromosomes arranged by pairs according to their size and shape.
Homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes that are similar in size, shape, and genetic content, pairing during meiosis.
Diploid
A cell condition with two sets of chromosomes, typical of somatic (body) cells in humans (46 chromosomes).
Haploid
A cell condition with one set of chromosomes, typical of gametes (sperm and egg) in humans (23 chromosomes).
Crossing over
The exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during meiosis, leading to genetic diversity.
Independent assortment
The random separation of homologous chromosome pairs during gamete formation in meiosis.
Aneuploidy
A condition characterized by having an abnormal number of chromosomes, such as trisomy 21 (Down syndrome).
Gene
A unit of heredity existing in alleles on chromosomes, responsible for inherited traits.
Dominant allele
The allele that is expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygous individual.
Recessive allele
The allele that is masked in the phenotype of a heterozygous individual.
Phenotype
The physical appearance or observable traits of an individual determined by genotype.
Genotype
The genetic makeup or allele combinations present in an individual.
Punnett square
A diagram used to predict the genetic outcome of a cross between two organisms.
Briefly describe the stages of the cell cycle
G1: Normal growth and function
S: DNA replication
G2: Final preparation for division
Briefly describe the checkpoints of the cell cycle
G1:Is cell damaged: can it be repaired
G2: Was DNA replicated properly
M: Are chromosomes lined up properly in cell center
Briefly describe the phases of mitosis
Prophase: chromatin condense into chromosomes; nuclear envelope is formed
Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell
Telophase: Chromosomes reach the ends of the cell; nuclear envelope reforms
Cytokinesis: Cell is divided into two cells.
Binary fusion
Splitting of a parent cell into two daughter cells; serves as an asexual form of reproduction in bacteria
Chromatid
Following replication, a chromosome consists of a pair of sister chromatids, held together at the centromere; each chromatid is comprised of a single DNA helix
Gamete
Haploid sex cell
Briefly describe the phases of meiosis
Prophase I: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; nuclear envelope fragments; homologues pair up; crossing over occurs between the non sister chromatids
Metaphase I: Homologues pairs lined up at metaphase plate in the center of the cell
Anaphase I: Homologues separate and are pulled to opposite poles
Telophase I: Chromosomes reach poles; new nuclear envelope may form
Cytokinesis: Divides into two cells
Prophase II: Cells have one chromosomes from each homologues pair
Metaphase II: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate in the center of the cell
Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell
Telophase II: Chromosomes reach the ends of the cell; new nuclear envelope is formed
Cytokinesis: Divides cells into a total of four cells
What type of plants use CAM photosynthesis
The type of plants that use CAM photosynthesis are a family of flowering succulent plants, like pineapples and cactus, that live in warm dry regions of the world.
What type of plants use C4 photosynthesis
The type of plants that use C4 photosynthesis are plants that live in hot dry climates like sugar cane, corn, and Bermuda grass.
What’s the difference between C3 photosynthesis and CAM and C4 photosynthesis
C3 photosynthesis produces a 3-carbon molecule while C4 photosynthesis and CAM photosynthesis produce a 4-carbon molecule
Briefly describe how light dependent reactions in photosynthesis produce NADPH
During the light reactions, solar energy energizes electrons, which move down an electron transport chain. As the electrons move down the chain, which consists of proteins in the cell membrane, energy is released and captured to produce ATP molecules. Energized electrons are also taken up by NADP+, which is reduced and becomes NADPH.
How is G3P produced
G3P is produced when carbon dioxide enters the Calvinist cycle, the CO2 then turns into C6 which then turns into 3PG. 3PG then turns into BPG which in turn turns into G3P.
What is the purpose of oxygen in aerobic cellular respiration
The purpose of oxygen in aerobic cellular respiration is to produce CO2 and H2O.
What is the main electron carrier for aerobic cellular respiration
The main electron carrier for aerobic cellular respiration is NADH.
Preparatory reaction
takes place in the mitochondria. Pyruvate is broken down from a 3-carbon molecule to a 2-carbon acetyl group, and a 1-carbon molecule is released. Reaction occurs twice per glucose molecule.
The citric acid cycle
takes place in the mitochondria. Each acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, several steps are used to convert citrate back into oxaloacetate, and during these steps NAD+ is reduced to NADH
