Reproductive systems

penis 

* external genitalia which allows semen and urine to exit the body
* allows for sexual intercourse to occur

foreskin 

* skin covering the glans

glans

* very sensitive skin on tip of penis 

erectile tissue 

spongy tissue that fills with blood causing an erection to occur causing the penis to be enlarged and stiff 

vas deferens 

* tube connecting the epididymus and seminal vesicles
* transports sperm

testes

* site of spermatogenesis
* must be kept at 35ºc
* interstitial cells produce testosterone

epididymus 

* where the sperm mature for around a month
* sits on top of testes

scrotum 

* sac which testes are located 

urethra

where semen and urine exit the body 

bulbo-urethral gland 

produces substance that lubricates the pathway for sperm 

prostate 

* alkaline
* substance that protects semen from the acidic nature of the vagina

seminal vesicles 

* produces a thick and sugar filled substance that allows the mitochondria in the sperm to undergo cellular respiration and produce energy for the cells to move

labia majora

* exterior genitalia
* hair and oils

labia minora

* interior section of vagina behind labia majora folds

clitoris 

* erectile tissue 

vagina

* location of insemination, where penis is inserted during intercourse
* acts as the birth canal
* elastic

cervix

* separates the uterus and vagina 

uterus

* where the embryo and foetus develops through pregnancy
* muscular organ
* site of implantation
* nourishes and houses foetus

endometrium

* lining of the uterus that develops and thickens during the ovarian cycle until it is shed during menstruation
* continues to thicken if egg is fertilised

Fallopian tubes 

* pathway for ova connecting the ovaries and uterus
* usually where fertilisation occurs
* have cilia that create a small current to guide ova

ovaries 

* produces oestrogen and progesterone
* where follicles are located that mature and form ova

Describe the process of spermatogenesis.

• spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules within the testes

• outer layer = spermatogonium —> diploid cells

• divides via mitosis to maintain numbers and then by meiosis to make sperm

• cells near centre = begin meiosis

  • called primary spermatocytes

  • after the first division they are haploid and secondary spermatocytes

  • after the 2nd division they are called spermatids

• sperm migrate to epididymus for final maturation

  • stay there for up to 1 month

  • testosterone causes them to make lots of mitochondria, create a tail and get rid of excess cytoplasm

Describe the process of oogenesis.

* at birth = 100 000s of oogonia in ovaries
* remain dormant in follicles until puberty
* they have undergone prophase 1 and then stopped
* primary oocysts
* surrounded by single layer of cells to form a primary follicle
* at puberty
* follicles mature
* primary oocyte completes meiosis 1, one cell receives most of cytoplasm
* creates secondary oocyte and first polar body
* secondary oocyte begins meiosis 2 stopping at metaphase 2
* ovulation occurs
* secondary oocyte and polar body are released
* if fertilised, meiosis 2 is completed

Outline the main differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

• each primary spermatocyte undergoes 1st meiotic division to become 2 secondary spermatocytes (n)

• each primary oocyte undergoes 1st meiotic division - one of the resulting cells becomes a secondary oocyte (n) and the other the first polar body

• 2nd secondary spermatocytes undergo 2nd meiotic division to form 4 spermatids (n)

• secondary oocyte (n) commences the second meiotic division but stops at metaphase producing a second polar body (n) and an ootid (n). First polar body (n) may also undergo the 2nd meiotic division resulting in two polar bodies (n)

• spermatids mature into sperm (n)

• ootid matures into an ovum (n)

Describe the main events of the ovarian cycle.

• oestrogen is high as it is repairing endometrium

• leutinizing and follicle stimulating are increasing to allow for the maturation of follicles

• follicles undergoes…

  • primary follicle enlarges and divides = layer of cells around oocyte

  • cells secrete fluid around oocyte and force it towards the side of the follicle —> now called secondary follicle

  • more fluid = moves to surface of ovary

  • near surface = bulges like blister (Graafian/mature follicle)

• lots of secondary follicles are created during this process but are reabsorbed into ovary

• DAY 14 = oestrogen levels cause a spike in LH and FSH —> ovulation where mature follicle expels oocyte and it travels down Fallopian tube

  • ruptured follicle collapses and blood clot forms but is absorbed by remaining follicle cells

    • forms cream coloured body called the corpus luteum

• corpus luteum secretes progesterone mainly but also a bit of oestrogen

  • progesterone allows the uterine lining to thicken and develop for potential fertilisation

  • inhibits the release of FSH and LH = no more follicle development

• if no fertilisation, corpus lutetium develops maximally 8-10 days after ovulation = degenerates into a fibrous mass of scar tissue the corpus albicans

• progesterone and oestrogen decreases and menstruation occurs

fertilisation occurs

• corpus luteum does no degenerate and continues to grow and is maintained by human chronic gonadotropin

• HCG aids the developing placenta

• once placenta can produce oestrogen and progesterone, corpus luteum degenerates

• ovarian cycle resumes after childbirth

Describe the main events of the menstrual cycle.

• series of changes to the uterus during the ovarian cycle

• follicle is maturing

  • progesterone causes endometrium to thicken and become softer

• after ovulation

  • endometrium contines to thicken

  • secretes watery mucus

• if egg is not fertilised, corpus luteum degenerates reducing progesterone and breaks down

• 14 days after ovulation, blood from broken capillaries, mucus and cell debris is shed with the endometrium through vagina

the phases

• menstrual

  • lining shed

  • vessels constrict reducing blood flow

• proliferative

  • lining regenerates by oestrogen

  • number of blood vessels up

• secretory

  • lining is maintained by progesterone and is ready for embryo implantation

  • glands release watery, glycogen rich mucus into uterine cavity

List the hormones involved in the ovarian and menstrual cycles and describe their effects.

* FSH = stimulates the growth and maturation of follicles and causes ovulation
* LH = stimulate egg to be released via ovulation
* Oestrogen = repairs endometrium in early ovarian cycle phases and continues doing so to a lesser extent in the latter phases
* Progesterone = maintains and thickens the endometrium allowing to become suitable for the implantation of an embryo

Describe the process of fertilisation and state where and when it occurs.

usually occurs in the Fallopian tubes after an egg has been ovulated

• sexual intercourse occurs where the penis enters the vagina

• ejaculation where semen enters the vagina

• sperm: vagina - cervix - uterus - Fallopian tubes

  • in a few minutes

• muscular contraction of uterus helps sperm travel there

• fertilisation usually occurs when egg is 1/3 the way down the uterine tube

• secondary oocyte = metaphase 2

  • outer: corona radiata = follicles held by cementing materials of oocyte

  • inner: corona pellucida = glycoprotein matrix surrounding plasma membrane of oocyte

• acrosome of sperm has enzyme that breaks down cementing materials in corona radiata

  • many thousands needed for ONE sperm to penetrate the egg

• sperm penetrates pellucida = acrosomal reaction where digestive enzymes are released

  • breaks down glycoprotein matrix = access to plasma membrane

  • plasma membranes of oocyte and spermatozoa fuse = sperm nucleus enters ovum

• fertilisation causes membrane to form around ovum = no more sperm in oocyte

• tail absorbed

• 2nd division is complete

• 1 nucleus = diploid

• zygotę is created

Explain the following assisted reproductive technologies procedures – AID, IVF, GIFT, ICSI

• ovulation induction

  • woman has ovulation problems, fertility drugs can be used

  • these drugs have LH and FSH

  • stimulate egg growth and ovulation

  • if ovulation induced successfully, conception may occur naturally

  • fertility drugs also used to produce multiple eggs for IVF procedures and improve endometrium's condition

• Artificial Insemination

  • concentrated does of sperm from a woman's partner or donor is injected into the woman's uterus during ovulation

• IVF = in vitro fertilisation

  • in vitro = in glass (outside of body)

  • in vivo = inside living body

  • IVF

    • eggs and sperm are combined in the lab to facilitate fertilisation

    • the resulting embryos can be transferred to the woman's uterus and undergo normal development or frozen for future use

    1. Ovarian stimulation

       • fertility drugs stimulate ovaries to produce many eggs

       • progress of follicles is monitored using ultrasound

    2. Egg retrieval

       • eggs harvested using transvaginal ultrasound aspiration

       • ultrasound is used to guide a fine needle through vagina wall and into ovary

       • mature eggs are sucked into hollow needle

    • insemination, fertilisation and embryo culture

      • best of the harvested eggs are either added to sperm in IVF future medium and fertilisation is allowed to take place, or the sperm may be injected directly into the egg

      • preimplantation genetic diagnosis

        • may be carried out to screen for specific inherited diseases before the embryo is transferred

• common fertility treatments

  • GAMETE INTRAFALLOPIAN TRANSFER (GIFT)

    • if Fallopian tubes normal, sperm + egg introduced into tube and fertilisation occurs in own body

  • ZYGOTE INTRAFALLOPIAN TUBE TRANSFER (ZIFT)

    • fertilisation occurs in lab and zygote placed in Fallopian tube

  • INTRACYTOPLASMIC SPERM INJECTION (ICSI)

    • single healthy sperm injected into egg

    • zygotę introduced into f-tube or uterus

  • EPIDIDYMAL AND TESTICULAR SPERM EXTRACTION

    • man's sperm duct is blocked, sperm for ICSI procedure can be extracted directly from testes or sperm duct

Describe the events that take place from the formation of the zygote to the blastocyst stage when implantation occurs. (Include the timing of significant events).

• zygote undergoes mitosis whilst travelling to uterus creating morula in the first 3-4 days after fertilisation

  • cell number up but not size

• after 4-5 days cells rearrange forming blastocyst

  • hollow ball of 100 cells

  • cavity filled with fluid

  • inner cell mass of 30 cells

• 7 days after fertilisation = implantation

  • blastocyst embeds in endometrial lining

  • blastocyst gains nourishment by absorbing nutrients from glands and blood vessels in lining

  • lining is maintained by progesterone by corpus luteum until placenta is formed after 12 weeks

Describe the role of HCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) in pregnancy.

* placenta secretes Human Chorionic Gonadotropin


1. maintains corpus luteum in early pregnancy
2. used for pregnancy test

Describe some of the tissues/structures that develop from the primary germ layers

ectoderm

* outer layer
* skin, hair, mammary glands

endoderm

* innermost layer
* digestive system, lungs, thyroid

mesoderm

* middle layer
* skeleton, muscles, heart

Describe the role and development of the amnion and chorion

amnion

* by day 8, surrounds embryo and secretes amniotic fluid into cavity
* fluid absorbs shock, regulates temperature and allows for free movement
* expands as necessary and ruptures before birth = breaking of the waters

chorion

* outer cells of blastocyst and mesoderm layer of cells
* surround embryo and 3 other membranes
* amnion will fuse to underside = main portion of placenta

Summarise the significant events that occur during embryonic (week 0 – 8)

• week 1

  • fertilisation

  • morula forms

  • blastocyst forms

    • sheds zona pellucida = membrane surrounding embryo before implantation

    • implantation begins

• week 2

  • amniotic cavity and yolk sac appear

  • implantation complete

  • future placenta starts to develop

• week 3

  • ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm form

  • future backbone appears

  • blood and vascular system start to develop

• week 4

  • embryo distinguishable

  • body segments and future skeleton visible

  • major organs start developing

• week 5

  • recognisable

  • 2.5-7mm long

  • cartilaginous skeleton begins to develop

  • limb buds developing

• week 7

  • head rounded

  • eyes conspicuous

  • hands and feet

  • straightens

  • tail disapears

  • ossification

• week 8

  • 27-31 mm

  • face and limbs well developed

  • first movements

  • 90% of adult structures established

  • gender can be determined

Describe the structure and function of the placenta.

structure

• small finger like extensions called chorionic villi contains foetus blood vessels and extend into endometrium

• surrounded by maternal blood pools from uterine arteries

• large surface are for diffusion

• substances diffuse between circulatory systems

• umbilical cord attaches at one end of foetus and to placenta

  • 2x arteries (blood to placenta

  • 1x vein (blood to foetus)

function

• supplies oxygen, nutrients and antibodies to foetus

• carbon dioxide and waste removal from foetus

• anchors foetus to uterus

• releases hormones to maintain pregnancy (endocrine gland)

anatomical changes in the mother during pregnancy.

* enlargements of uterus
* breast enlargement
* accentuated lumbar curvature
* relaxation of pelvic ligaments

gastrointestinal changes in the mother during pregnancy.

* morning sickness = elevated progesterone
* heartburn = organ crowding
* constipation = declining motility of digestive tract

urinary system changes in the mother during pregnancy.

* kidneys have additional burden and produce more urne
* the uterus compresses the bladder - pressure on the bladder caused by increased uterus size

respiratory changes in the mother during pregnancy

* nasal mucosa = congested and swollen
* vital capacity and respiratory rate increase

cardiovascular changes in the mother during pregnancy 

* body water up
* blood volume up
* blood pressure and pulse up.
* varicose veins = common

other changes in the mother during pregnancy 

* growing of the abdomen
* not all the increase in the size of the abdomen is due to the uterus
* some due to other internal organs such as the stomach, liver and intestines being forced upwards and outwards
* enlargement of the breasts
* development of milk secreting tissues
* increase in heart and in blood volume
* caters for extra blood flow through placenta
* greater blood volume = increased blood flow to kidneys and increased urination
* during the first 3 months of pregnancy, uterus presses on bladder making it feel like it is filled with urine
* as pregnancy continues, uterus moves up pelvic cavity releasing pressure = last stages, pressure again
* emotional state
* changes in hormone balance and fears accompanying pregnancy
* developmental problems
* effects of newborn on family
* support and reassurance of family are very important

maternal health

• linked with foetal health

• once pregnant, woman should alter her lifestyle to meet new circumstances and accomodate the changes her body will undergo

diet when pregnant

* increase in kJ intake
* folic acid and spina bifida = protein (neural tube defects)
* Calcium and Vitamin A = bone development
* Freshly prepared food = decrease risk of Listeria
* no raw fish or cured meats
* no soft cheeses

weight gain and exercise whilst pregnant

* weight should increase
* increase protein intake
* hormonal changes contribute
* maintain exercise and many benefits
* Carry to term
* maintain stamina during labour
* regain pregnancy fitness

Congenital Defects 

* present at time of birth
* may be due to environmental factors
* teratogen = causes mutations and physical defects in the developing embryo
* examples = hormones, antibiotics, oral anticoagulants, anticonvulsants, anti-tumour, thyroid drugs, thalidomide, LSD and marijuana

factors influencing effects of teratogens

* stage of pregnancy
* most dangerous in first trimester (HIV + alcohol dangerous in all)
* frequency of exposure
* duration of exposure
* dosage
* genetic susceptibility

alcohol and pregnancy

* can cause foetal alcohol syndrome
* 1 in 1000 births may be effected by FAS
* excessive alcohol + binge drinking in early pregnancy = marked effect on child
* effects
* mainly effects nervous system
* lower birth weight
* slow growth
* small head
* narrow eye slits
* sunken nasal bridged
* heart defects
* malformed limbs
* intellectual disabolities
* hyperactivity + nervousness

smoking and pregnancy

* low birth weight
* increased miscarriage
* gastrointestinal problems if smoking whilst breastfeeding
* higher probability of respiratory problems (bronchitis and pneumonia) in first year
* Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

thalidomide and pregnancy

* used for morning sickness prevention in 1950's + 60's in the first trimester
* increase in limb malformations which form in the 5th week of embryonic development


* est. 7000 babies effected (1958-1961)
* acts on embryo between 28th and 42nd days

rubella and pregnancy

* viral infection
* child may be born deaf, blind or with heart malformations if mother contracts rubella during pregnancy
* rubella grows in forming tissues
* 90% of babies effected in first 10 weeks have major problems, this percentage decreases the further the mother is along in pregnancy
* vaccine (MMR) for this that most get from ages

prior to labour/birth

* parturition is the process in which the foetus is expelled
* labour is the sequence of events leading up to parturition
* prior to these events, hormones have
* relaxed ligaments to make the pelvis more pliable
* foetus is positioned the pelvis, facing the side
* the cervix has begun to soften (and shorten)

dilation of the cervix

* start of labour
* 4-9 hours and until cervix is 10cm dilated
* 8-9 hours for first child
* 4-5 hours second child
* waves of smooth muscle contraction (top to bottom) pull the cervix so it shortens
* allows the foetus to sit more deeply in pelvis
* contractions increase in frequency until birth canal is formed (U, C, V - single passage)

expulsion

* amniotic sac ruptures - may occur earlier
* 20 min - 2 hrs
* foetus moves into vagina - stimulates abdominals to contract WITH uterine muscles
* foetus turns to face the back and is pushed out
* foetus turns to side once outside the birth canal and resistance may cause head to become misshapen

afterbirth

* baby breathes
* umbilical cord is clamped and cut with the naval the remnants
* placental blood vessels constrict and uterine muscles contract - both work to close blood vessels
* blood clot forms, gets larger and causes placenta to detach
* once clamped and cut, umbilical cord is gently pulled on to help remove placenta
* placenta is inspected

what are the 3 stages of birth

dilation of the cervix, expulsion, afterbirth

structures used for circulation (in utero)

ductus venous, ductus arteriorsus, foramen ovale

ductus venosus

* foetal blood is carried to and from placenta by blood vessels in umbilical cord
* arteries —> CO2 + Wastes exchange with O2 and nutrients —> returns through vein
* some of blood returning to the foetus flows through the liver and into inferior vena cava
* remainder (30%) bypasses liver by flowing through vessel called ductus venous and then into inferior cava
* the fact that much of the blood does not pass through the liver causes no problems as mother's liver serves needs of foetus

ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale

• blood returning to foetal heart enters right atrium and can follow several pathways

  • Lungs are collapsed and not functioning = considerable resistance to blood flow and little blood reaches lungs

  • most of blood from right ventricle flows through ductus arteriosus which allows blood from pulmonary artery to flow directly into the aorta

  • right atrium blood may flow directly to left by the opening called the foramen ovale

    • beneficial as blood from the placenta is highly oxygenated and can flow to the developing foetal tissues via aorta very fast

changes to circulation at birth

• no longer dependent on placenta for food and oxygen

• lungs and liver must become fully functional = blood must flow through them

• important that ductus venous, ductus arterioles and foramen ovale close

• first breath = stimulated by shock of birth or slap on bum

• clamping the umbilical vessels = CO2 in baby's blood rises

• as lungs expand = no longer resist blood flow = flow in ductus arteriosus down

• all that is left of ductus arteriosus after a few weeks is a fibrous mass of tissue

• pressure in left atrium increases = flap of foramen ovale closes permanently

  • bypass of liver closed = must go to liver

  • if fails to close = hole in heart

    • indication = bluish colour due to insufficient O2

  • surgery can be performed to close this and provide normal circulation

• baby breathes about 45 breaths per minute for the first 2 weeks

  • gradually slows

• 125 - 130 beats per minute often going to 180 bpm when excited

  • more muscular activity and keeping baby warm in cooler environment

• higher red blood cell count for extra O2 for tissues

• WBC count is very high at birth but decreased rapidly by 7th day

natural methods: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* no side effects
* no cost
* acceptable to certain religious groups

D:

* poor reliability
* no STI protection

periodic abstinence : advantages and disadvantages 

A: 

* no side effects 
* no cost 
* acceptable to certain religious groups

D:

* time and effort required to determine ovulation
* not reliable
* abstinence at certain times

lactational amenorrhoea method: advantages and disadvantages 

A: 

* no side effects 
* no cost 
* acceptable to certain religious groups

D:

* relies fully on breastfeeding a child
* effective only with no menstruation and within first 6 months of birth

withdrawal: advantages and disadvantages 

A: 

* no side effects 
* no cost 
* acceptable to certain religious groups

D:

* requires self control
* very unreliable

spermicides: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* relatively easy to use

D:

* unreliable on their own
* need to be used in conjunction with another barrier
* no protection from STI’s

Intrauterine devices: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* effective
* long-lasting
* easily reversed
* once in place can be forgotten
* may be effective emergency contraception

D:

* must be inserted by a doctor
* may cause pain and bleeding at menstruation
* no STI protection

diaphragm/cervical cap: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* does not affect the menstrual cycle
* can be used during menstruation
* can be inserted ahead of Tim so that the spontaneity of intercourse is not affected

D:

* difficult or unpleasant to insert
* size must be prescribed by doctor
* spermicide must be used to improve reliability

condom: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* easy to buy
* cheap
* good protection against STI’s

D:

* may affect spontaneity
* partners need to be motivated and cooperated

Femidom: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* may be put in place long before intercourse
* stronger than male condoms
* good protection against STI’s

D:

* placement needs practice
* more expensive than male condoms

combined pill: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* very reliable
* regular periods
* reduced ovarian or uterine cancer
* unrelated to sexual activity

D:

* regular doctors prescription is required
* must be taken daily
* side effects
* STI

mini pill: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* reliable if taken carefully
* suitable for those who cannot take oestrogen

D:

* STI
* must be taken at same time every day

Implanon NXT: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* lasts for 3 years
* cheap
* nearly 100% effective

D:

* may cause menstrual irregularities
* side effects possible
* STI

Depo provera and depo ralovera: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* very effective
* convenient
* periods cease

D:

* injection cannot be reversed
* delay in fertility when injections cease
* side effects
* STI

NuvaRing

A:

* daily pill not required
* very reliable

D:

* regular placement and removal required
* STI

sterilisation (tubal ligation and vasectomy): advantages and disadvantages

A:

* permanent
* nearly 100% effective

D:

* cannot be easily reversed
* require a surgical procedure
* specialise referral necessary for female sterilisation
* no STI protection

morning after pill: advantages and disadvantages

A:

* may be useful when other methods have failed or not been used
* fairly effective
* available over-the-counter

D:

* emergency use only
* needs to be started within 72 hours of sexual intercourse to be effective
* no STI protection

viral STIs

genital herpes and genital warts

bacterial STIs

gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydia

parasitic STIs

pubic lice and scabies

genital herpes

• causes

  • intercourse and oral sex

• symptoms

  • Herpes Simplex 2 = strain related to (same word 1) which is responsible for cold sores

  • some people experience a single episode of herpes, others it is recurrent

  • some not only display symptoms but may be able to pass It on

  • painful blistering

  • active sores are usually source of infection

  • no long term health problems

• treatment

  • bathe area with salt solution

  • pain medication

  • creams

  • once infected, virus remains in the body

  • although symptoms can be treated, there is no cure

• in newborns

  • mothers infected in last trimester = risk infecting baby

  • 40% of babies infected = die or have severe brain damage

  • c-section = generally performed if mother is suspected of having herpes

genital warts

• causes

  • intercourse and oral sex

• symtoms

  • caused by Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)

  • warts generally appear around external genitalia, can also be internal

  • responsible for 70% of cervical cancer cases in women

  • painless, but may be itch warts

  • blood in urine

  • blood in faeces

  • pain or bleeding during sex

• treatment

  • external warts can be removed using laser

  • anti-wart ointment

  • never get rid of genital warts virus

gonorrhoea

* causes
* intercourse and oral sex
* symptoms
* males
* 20% no symptoms
* remainder suffer discharge of pus of penis and pain urinating
* females
* 10-15% experience no symptoms
* majority have no symptoms but then may suffer serious health problems such as pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility
* pus produced inside cervix usually thought to be vaginal discharge and can eventually cause a blockage near the oviduct = egg can't be released
* treatment
* antibiotics
* may be in the form of tablets or injection

syphilis

* causes
* intercourse and oral sex
* symptoms
* primary: sore or chancre appears near site
* secondary: rash and prolonged flu-like symptoms
* dormant: entering long, silent period
* tertiary: bacterium eventually attacks bones, heart and nervous system = insanity or death
* treatment
* antibiotics

chlamydia

* causes
* intercourse and oral sex
* symptoms
* most have no symptom
* can cause infertility or chronic pain if untreated

\
* women
* irregular discharge
* bleeding or spotting between periods
* pain having sex
* stinging when urinating
* men
* milky penis discharge
* redness at penis opening
* pain or swelling of testicles
* treatment
* antibiotics

pubic lice

* causes
* intercourse
* symptoms
* Phthirus Pubis
* broader than they re long
* confined to pubic and anal area unless person is hairier and can be found on chest and armpits
* intense reaction = faeces and lice
* treatment
* lotions
* pill medication

rhythm method

* based on fact that egg is available for fertilisation only 3-5 days in each menstrual cycle.
* if female has regular 28 day cycle, ovulation usually occurs on the 14th day
* egg can survive for only 2 days unless it is fertilised and sperm can survive in female reproductive tract for max 4 days
* no sex 4 days before and after ovulation
* extra allowance for if egg is not released exactly on day 14
* for a 28 day cycle
* days 10-11: live sperm can fertilise egg when released
* days 12-16: ripe egg may be released
* day 17: egg may still be present

temperature method

* refinement of rhythm method in predicting ovulation
* female can take body temperature each morning
* ovulation is accompanied by a sharp drop in temperature and then a rise
* can have sex 3 days after temperature rise

mucus method

* Australian doctor founded method
* change in mucus of the cervix
* after menstruation = vaginal opening is dry
* at first mucus is cloudy and sticky
* mucus becomes clearer and feels slippery, they will stretch without breaking
* ovulation = peak of clear mucus
* then becomes cloudy again
* sexual intercourse - safest when no mucus and more than three days after the last day of clear mucus

symptothermal method

* rhythm method combined with temperature and mucus to predict fertile period
* fertility monitor can measure changes in temperature and mucus
* woman has to keep careful records
* hard to have sex according to calendar rather than desire
* low rates of pregnancy can be achieved if couple is motivated

condoms

* very thin latex rubber that is rolled onto erect penis before intercourse
* some evidence that they were made of animal membranes 2000 years ago
* semen don't enter vagina, provided it does not tear or slip off after ejaculation
* protects person from STI's = HIV and AIDS

diaphragm

* thin rubber ca that fits across the top of the vagina
* correct size must be prescribed by a doctor and it must be inserted before sex
* used with spermicidal cream or jelly to increase effectiveness
* should be left in for at least 6 hours after intercourse

cervical cap

* similar to but smaller than diaphragm
* fits directly over cervix
* used with spermicidal cream or jelly to increase effectiveness
* should be left in for at least 6 hours after intercourse

femidom

* lubricated polyurethane sheath that lines vagina


* at each end is a flexible ring
* one end over the cervix and other end over the folds of skin surrounding vaginal entrance
* female condom = effective contraceptive device and protects one from STI's

combined pill

* contains oestrogen and progesterone = prevents the release of mature eggs from the ovary


* cervical mucus becomes thick and sticky = hard for sperm to travel up
* due to hormones, uterus less receptive to implantation
* works if taken daily, if skipped for over 2 days = no protection

mini pill

* only substitute progesterone
* makes cervical mucus thicker so sperm can't enter uterus
* difficult for embryo to implant in uterus
* must be taken daily at same time

Implanon NXT

* soft plastic stick = 4cm
* beneath skin on the inner side of upper arm
* slowly releases progesterone into the body and provides contraception for 3 years

NuvaRing

* oestrogen and progesterone delivered by NuvaRing
* soft plastic ring placed in vagina releasing doses of 2 hormones
* left in for 3 weeks and taken out for 1
* prevents ovulation
* thicker cervical mucus
* implantation cant occur

male hormonal contraception

* implant of testosterone placed under skin every 4 months


* combined with an injection of progesterone every 3 months
* suppresses sperm production
* other options = gel or tablets containing testosterone and synthetic progesterone

hormonal IUD

* plastic frame
* are releases progesterone hormone levonorgestrel
* Mirena = one type available in Aus
* hormones make uterus walls thin and unsuitable for implantation of fertilised egg
* thick mucus on Cervix
* for some, ovulation stops altogether
* lasts 5 years

copper IUD

* plastic frame with copper sleeves or copper wire around it
* 2 types in aus
* inhibit movement of sperm and preventing them from moving through uterus
* changes to endometrium = implantation can't occur
* lasts 10 years

morning after pill

* sooner it is taken after, the more effective
* prevents/delays ovulation
* prevents implantation
* has side effects