Psych concents and realated terms

Bias

cognitive limitation that affects objectivity and decision-making by influencing people’s perceptions and interpretations of information

Bias related terms

Holism, Reductionism, Positivism, Determinism, Sampling bias, Cognitive biases, Cultural bias, Gender bias, Publication bias, Reflexivity, inter-rater reliability, Reliability, Participant bias, Researcher bias

Researcher Bias

intentional or unintentional influence and distortion that researchers may impose on their research because of their beliefs or expectations

Participant bias

occurs when participants behave differently than they would if they were not research participants, perhaps because they want to fit in (social desirability), or help or hinder the researcher (screw-you, and demand characteristics)

Reliability

a study’s ability to be repeated and achieve the same or similar results. Also increases the credibility and validity

Inter-rater reliability

differences in rates or observers judgements that weaken the reliability of research conclusions. It indicates the extent to which observers of participants agree, higher means researchers reach the same conclusion, and is needed to ensure consistent measurement

Reflexivity

researcher’s own conscious and continuous acknowledgement of their own biases and how these affect the research. Involves researcher reflecting on their own background, experiences, and attitude to be alert for biases that may be present

Publication bias

the tendency of researchers, and authors to prefer research into new, popular, or politically advantageous topics, or to prefer positive or statistically significant findings

Gender bias

refers to favoring or discriminating against people on the basis of their gender

Cultural bias

inclination to discriminate against or in favor of people’s cultures, leading to conclusions based on cultural backgrounds

Cognitive bias

errors in thinking and decision-making processes which occur because people use irrational or subjective information, rather than objective logic to make decisions

Sampling bias

when the selected participants are not representative of the population to which the study’s conclusion is applied

Determinism

a philosophical approach which proposes that all behavior is the result of external influences such as genetic inheritance and environmental conditions

Biological determinism

assumes that human behavior, including cognitive processes and personality traits, is caused by genetic predispositions and physiological mechanisms

Environmental determinism

assumes that behavior is caused by factors such as family upbringing, cultural influences, and life experiences

Psychological determinism

proposes that events occur in predictable manner and that behavior is caused by specific variables

Positivism

research approach that aims to establish universal explanations of behavior through objective and replicable quantitative research methods that generate empirical evidence

Reductionism

research approach that breaks down complex behaviors, such as cognition and decision-making into simple, more manageable components to make understanding the behavior easier

Holism

recognizes the complexity of individual experiences by examining behavior within its broadest context and considers the simultaneous interactions of many factors

Causality

refers to how one variable affects another

Causality related terms

Agency and motivation, Influence and interaction, Complexity, Significance, Controls, Validity, Reductionism, Bidirectional ambiguity, Reciprocal determinism,

Reciprocal determinism

idea that people both affect and are affected by their environment

Bidirectional ambiguity

refers to uncertainty of the direction of causality between 2 variables

Validity

refers to extent to which research accurately measures the concept it claims to measure

Internal validity

indicates the extent to which observed effects within a study can be attributed to the manipulated independent variable rather than confounding variables

External validity

refers to extent to which study’s findings can be generalized to other populations

Experimental controls

incorporated to the design of research studies to exclude influence of extraneous variables

Significance

refers to statistical probability of an observed relationship between variables occurring by chance

Complexity

refers to multifaceted nature of relationships between variables

Influence and interaction

describes how variables relate to each other. Influence refers to the effect of one variable on another, interaction refers to the combined effect of more than one variable on an outcome

Agency and motivation

Agency is a person’s ability to make decisions and take action to achieve outcomes. (autonomy) Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that make behavior happen

Change

refers to modifications of behavior, including thoughts and emotions.

Change related terms

Agency and motivation, Determinism, Development and maturation, Effectiveness of treatment, Intervention, prevention and promotion strategies, Longitudinal and repeated measures designs, Prevalence, Barriers to change

Barriers to change

factors that hinder people’s ability to change. Includes resistance to behaving differently, lack of motivation, fear, and entrenched habits or beliefs

Prevalence

refers to proportion of people from a population who behave a certain way or exhibit certain characteristics or conditions

Longitudinal and repeated measures designs

research methods used to study change in individuals or groups. Individual design is data collected on the same participants at different times. Repeated measures measures same variables within participants but across different conditions and/or times

Intervention, prevention, and promotion strategies

used to address behavioral issues, enhance people’s quality of life and prevent the development of mental health issues.

Effectiveness of treatment

refers to extent to which a therapeutic intervention leads to a desired outcome

Development and maturation

refers to growth, change and improvement that people experience during their lives, including cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development

Measurement

quantifying behaviors

Measurement related terms

Prospective vs. retrospective approaches; longitudinal vs. cross-sectional research designs, Interpretive approaches (content analysis), Brain imaging techniques, Type | and Il errors, Statistical significance, Types of data (self-reported, anecdotal, empirical), Constructs and variables and the operationalization of variables, Choice of research method, Techniques to measure variables, Evidence

Triangulation

using several types of measurement, improves the credibility of research

Evidence

used to describe data or information gathered by researchers to assess changes related to behavior

Techniques to measure variables

Direct methods such as questionnaires or indirect methods such as brain imaging

Choice of research method

The best approaches or techniques to collect data:

Experimental method_involves manipulating one variable and observing the effect it has on another,

Observational Method_ involves systematically observing and recording behaviors in non-laboratory/real settings,

Correlational Methods examine the relationship between 2 or more variables but without manipulating them.

Interviews can be structured using a set of questions, semi-structured or focus groups where participants react to one another

Constructs

abstract concepts that researchers try to study, such as intelligence, personality traits and depression

Variables

measured aspects or dimensions of constructs that can be quantified

Operationalization

defining and specifying how constructs and variables will be measured in a study, allowing abstract concepts to be translated into observable and measurable indicators

Types of data

self-reported, anecdotal, empirical

Self-reported data

collected directly from people through questionnaires, surveys or interviews

Anecdotal data

arise from personal accounts or observations of experiences

Empirical data

obtained through controlled experiments or observations based on objective evidence

Statistical significance

probability that an observed change, difference or relationship between variables is not simply due to random chance

Type I errors

occurs if the researcher incorrectly rejects the null hypothesis when it is actually true

Type II errors

occurs when researcher does not reject the null hypothesis when it is false

Brain imaging techniques

PET, CAT, MRI, fMRI

Interpretive approaches

involves analyzing qualitative data to reveal underlying meanings and themes in text or visual content

Content analysis

an interpretative method for examining written, verbal or visual content

Perspective

refers to viewpoints from which behavior is understood, and encompasses theoretical approaches that influence how psychologists interpret phenomena

Perspective related terms

Alternative explanations and interpretations, Perspectives of Indigenous societies, Emic and etic perspectives/approaches, Deductive and inductive research, Psychological theories and models

Psychological theories and models

abstract frameworks used to explain and understand aspects of behavior.

Theory

proposed and testable explanations

Model

suggested description of a structure or process

Deductive and inductive research

constraining approaches used to generate new knowledge and conclusions. Deductive research moves from general principle to specific hypotheses and predictions. Inductive research moves from specific observations to general principles based on those observations

Emic approach

examines behavior from within a culture, using an insiders perspective

Etic approach

analyzes behavior from an outsider’s viewpoint, applying universal, cross-cultural principles and concepts to identify similarities and differences in behavior

Responsibility

moral obligations to carry out research with integrity and with consideration and compassion for all stakeholders’ well-being

Responsibility related terms

Socially sensitive issues, Ethical standards, Ethical considerations, Ethical principles

Ethical principles

frameworks that guide the priorities and decisions of psychologists and researchers. Aim is to prioritize participants’ welfare while maximizing benefit to psychology community

Ethical considerations

Means conducting and applying research responsibly. Which evolve in response to society’s changing norms and values.

Ethical standards

Ensuring that the rights and well-being of stakeholders are protected (ie: use of animals, children, and public spaces)