Unit 1 Flashcards for AP Psychology Exam Preparation

Hereditary/ Nature

passing of traits from parents to their offspring through genes

Environmental factors / Nurture

refers to the external influences that impact a person's development, including their upbringing, social interactions, culture, and life experiences

evolutionary perspective

a scientific approach that considers how traits change over generations and eras, and how this relates to survival and reproduction.

Twin studies

compare identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to understand how genetics and environment influence traits, behaviors, and conditions

Family Studies

the study of how individuals are influenced by and influence their families, communities, and societies, or to the study of genetic factors that contribute to variation among peopl

Adoption studies

a research method that compares people to determine how genetic and environmental factors influence their behavior

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Spinal Cord

a column of nerve tissue that runs from the base of the skull to the lower back

Peripheral Nervous System

part of your nervous system that lies outside your brain and spinal cord

Autonomic Nervous System

a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal

Somatic Nervous System

the part of the nervous system that controls voluntary movement and allows us to sense the world around us

Parasympathetic Nervous System

a network of nerves that helps the body relax and conserve energy

Sympathetic Nervous System

a network of nerves that prepares the body for physical activity, stress, and danger

Neurons

basic units of the nervous system and brain that are responsible for many of the body's actions

Glial Cells

a type of cell in the nervous system that support neurons and help maintain homeostasis

Reflex Arc

a neural pathway that controls the body's automatic response to a stimulus

Sensory Neurons (Afferent)

Sensory neurons, also known as afferent neurons, are nerve fibers that carry sensory information from the body to the brain

Motor Neurons (Efferent)

the nerve fibers responsible for carrying signals from the brain to the peripheral nervous system in order to initiate an action

Interneurons

a type of neuron that act as a bridge between sensory and motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)

all or nothing principle

a nerve or muscle cell will either respond fully to a stimulus if it reaches a certain threshold, or it will not respond at all

Depolarization

the process of depolarizing something or the state of being depolarized

Refractory Period

a period of time during which an organ or cell is incapable of repeating a particular action

Resting Potential

the electrical charge difference across the membrane of a cell when it's not actively sending signals

Reuptake

the process by which a neuron reabsorbs a neurotransmitter after it has been released and transmitted a signal across a synapse

Threshold

the minimum level of intensity required for a stimulus to be detected or a response to be evoked

Multiple Sclerosis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system (CNS)

Myasthenia Gravis

a chronic autoimmune disease that causes muscle weakness, especially in the eyes, face, and throat

Action Potential

a rapid change in voltage across a cell membrane, which is caused by the movement of ions in and out of the cell

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that carry signals between neurons, muscles, and glands in the body. They are essential for many functions, including movement, emotions, learning, and memory.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

chemicals that encourage a target cell to take action

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter and hormone that plays a role in many bodily functions

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

Glutamate

an amino acid and neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in brain function

GABA

a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger in your brain. It slows down your brain by blocking specific signals in your central nervous system

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Hormones

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

Adrenaline

a hormone and neurotransmitter that helps the body react to stressful or dangerous situations

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

Ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

Psychoactive Drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain

Agonists

a chemical or drug that mimics a neurotransmitter or hormone to activate a receptor in the brain and produce a physiological response

Antagonists

a personality trait that describes a person's tendency to be at odds with others.

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

stimulants : caffeine

increases activity in your brain and nervous system. It also increases the circulation of chemicals such as cortisol and adrenaline in the body. In small doses, caffeine can make you feel refreshed and focused.

Stimulants: Cocaine

Cocaine is a tropane alkaloid that acts as a central nervous system stimulant.

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Depressants : alcohol

affects motor skills, judgement, and memory and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Hallucinogens: Marijuana

Skew sensory perception by interfering with action of neurotransmitters

Pain Relievers

Pain relievers, also known as analgesics, are medications that treat pain. There are many types of pain relievers

Pain Relievers : opioids

Opioids are a class of drugs that derive from, or mimic, natural substances found in the opium poppy plant. Opioids work in the brain to produce a variety of effects, including pain relief. As a class of substances, they act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects

Pain Relievers : heroin

also known as diacetylmorphine and diamorphine among other names, is a morphinan opioid substance synthesized from the dried latex of the opium poppy

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

where your cardiovascular and respiratory systems link together into a united system that controls your heart rate, breathing, blood pressure and more.

Reticular Activating System

Located in the upper brain stem; responsible for maintenance of consciousness, specifically one's level of arousal.

Reward Center

a dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Cerebral Cortex

outer region of the cerebrum, containing sheets of nerve cells; gray matter of the brain

Limbic System

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Corpus Callosum

a thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate and share information

Occipital Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Temporal Lobe

An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving area for auditory information

Parietal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

Frontal Lobe

The lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, and impulsive behavior.

Association Areas

parts of the cerebral cortex that integrate sensory information from other areas of the brain and connect sensory and motor areas

Somatosensory Cortex

the first level responsible for receiving and processing sensory information across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain

Prefrontal Cortex

thought of as the "personality center" and is the cortical region that makes us uniquely human

Motor Cortex

area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Left Hemisphere

controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math

Right Hemisphere

controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial

Split Brain Research

-study of patients with severed corpus callosum

-involves sending messages to only one side of the brain

-demonstrates right and left brain specialization

Broca's Area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Brain Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

Lesioning

removal or destruction of part of the brain

Circadian Rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

NREM Stages 1

heartbeat, eye movements, brain waves, and breathing activity begin to taper down

NREM Stages 2

a light sleep stage where your body becomes more subdued

NREM Stages 3

deep sleep

Hypnogogic sensations

The hypnagogic experience occurs between being awake and asleep; Experienced qualities vary, and include fear, awareness of a "presence," a falling sensation or a feeling of tripping (as myoclonic jerks are interpreted by the brain).

REM(rapid eye movement)

describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases

REM Rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Activation-Synthesis Dream Theory

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories