Quiz 2 - American Revolution & The Early Republic

Battle of Bunker Hill/Breed's Hill

Definition: A battle fought during the American Revolutionary War. It took place on June 17, 1775. Despite frequently being referred to as the Battle of Bunker Hill, it was actually fought on Breed's Hill. The British won the battle but experienced severe casualties. Significance: The humongous toll the revolutionaries inflicted on the British army inspired further support for the revolutionary cause in addition to weakening British forces.

Lord Dunmore's Proclamation

Definition: Lord Dunmore's Proclamation was an offer to those enslaved by the colonists around the time of the Revolutionary War (1775). The offer was that any slave who escaped their plantation and joined the British army to fight would receive freedom after the war. (It is important to note that most slaves were forced back into captivity after the British lost the war, although some did escape). Significance: Lord Dunmore's Proclamation was significant because it turned the Revolution from not just a political struggle, but a fight over slavery. It pushed many Southern plantation owners closer to the Patriot cause over fear of losing out on their slaves, thus losing out on their enterprises.

Olive Branch Petition

Definition: The Olive Branch petition was a document adopted by the Second Continental Congress in July 1775 as a final attempt to avoid war with Great Britain. Drafted primarily by John Dickinson, it expressed the Americans colony's loyalty to King George III while requesting his intervention to stop Parliament's harsh policies and restore peace. The petition came after early battles like Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill, showing that many colonists still hoped for reconciliation rather than independence. Significance: The Olive Branch Petition is significant because it marked the colonists last effort to settle their disputes with Britain peacefully. King George III rejected the petition outright and declared the colonies in rebellion, which closed the door to compromise. This rejection convinced many colonists that their grievances could not be resolved under British rule, pushing them closer to declaring full independence in 1776.

Common Sense

Definition: Common Sense was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in January 1776. His work showed immense support for American independence and criticized the English monarchy and the idea of hereditary rule. Paine argued that it didn't make sense for Britain, a small island, to have control over America, a large continent. Significance: This pamphlet was significant because it played a major role in gaining support for the independence movement. Paine explained how being part of the British Empire was a burden, rather than a benefit, writing that independence meant that the colonies would be able to trade freely and separate from all future European wars. Additionally, he claimed that support for the revolution was a support for "all mankind," displaying America's fight for independence as a fight for universal liberty and a larger purpose.

Black military service in the Continental army

Definition: There were black soldiers , both free and enslaved, on both sides of the war. Following the Dunmore Proclamation, thousands of slaves fled into British lines to accept the offer. On the American side, there were much fewer. Since people were able to avoid actually joining the war by providing a slave to fight, which gave slaves bargaining power in the form of not having to go to battle. Although they were not promised freedom, many got it after the war. Washington originally banned free Black men from being included in the Continental Army, but later allowed it (ex. First Rhode Island Regiment - ex. Of African American military units/service). Black soldiers also could serve in integrated units. Significance: The addition of black people in the military, even while they were free, showed a small but significant step in the right direction of ending slavery.

Battle of Saratoga

Definition: A battle between American forces and the second British army, led by General Burgoyne. Burgoyne landed in Canada and advanced south, hoping to link up with General Howe (leader of the first British army) and trap the colonies. Unbeknownst to Burgoyne, Howe moved his forces from New York to Pennsylvania, unintentionally abandoning Burgoyne. American forces blocked Burgoyne's advance, surrounded his army, and on October 17, 1777, forced him to surrender at the Battle of Saratoga. Significance: This victory provided a significant boost to American morale, which was suffering after a string of defeats. It also helped persuade the French that American victory was possible, allowing America to secure an alliance.

Treaty of Amity and Commerce

Definition: After the Battle of Saratoga, the French were persuaded that American victory in the War of Independence was possible. In 1778, American diplomats led by Benjamin Franklin formed a treaty in which France recognized the United States and agreed to supply military assistance. The Spanish and Dutch soon also joined the war against Britain. Significance: European financial and military assistance would end up playing a decisive role in Britain's defeat.

Native-British Alliances

Definition: Although some Native Americans decided to fight alongside the Americans, most Natives fought with the British in hopes of removing the settlers from the Native land. Mohawk Joseph Brant traveled to London to create an agreement between the British and the Mohawks for mutual military support and many Native tribes such as the Mohawks, Shawnees, Haudenosaunee, and Cherokees fought back against the settlers. Significance: The war with the British brought destruction upon the Native Americans who fought on either side. Washington sent out troops to capture people of the Haudenosaunee tribe, leading to multiple Native towns being burned and destroyed.

Loyalists

Definition: Loyalists were Colonists who remained loyal to the Crown and opposed the Revolutionary War. Significance: A small minority of about 15-20% of Colonists were Loyalists, however it highlighted the division amongst the 13 colonies. Many Loyalists faced persecution, had their property taken, and although the British did include a clause in the Treaty of Paris that said the Loyalists could no longer be persecuted, many escaped to Canada and Britain after the war.

Battle of Yorktown

Definition: Early 1781 - Washington saw an opportunity to corner General Cornwallis at Yorktown, which was located on a peninsula that juts into Chesapeake Bay. Washington's forces surrounded Yorktown, and French troops, led by Marquis de Lafayette, helped block both the land and the mouth of the Chesapeake. More Frenchmen than Americans participated in this battle as the rivalry of European empires helped to secure American independence. On Oct. 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered & and peace talks began. Significance: This was the end of major fighting in the American Revolution. The French support of the Americans was crucial to this battle and the loss by the British was seen as a loss of prestige and morale for the British and the British government lost support from their people when news of the surrender reached them.

Treaty of Paris

Definition: This agreement, signed in September 1783, officially ended the American Revolution, recognized American independence, and established the terms of peace between Britain & America. The American delegation (John Jay, John Adams, & Ben Franklin) won recognition of American independence, persuaded the British to give up the entire region between Canada & Florida east of the Mississippi River, and gained the right to fish in Atlantic waters off Canada. The Americans also agreed to the British term that the colonists who had remained loyal to the crown would go unharmed from persecution. Significance: Set the stage for the formation of the US as a unified nation. With this treaty, the United States of America became the Western Hemisphere's first independent nation. Its boundaries didn't include Canada or the Floridas or the West Indies - boundaries reflected circumstances of the country's birth.

Continental paper currency

Definition: Paper money issued by the continental congress during the American Revolution to fund the war effort. Significance: It quickly depreciated because it was not backed by gold or silver and overprinted, leading to inflation and the phrase "not worth a continental." This highlighted the need for a stronger national financial system.

War Bonds

Definition: A bond is a loan given to the government/corporation by an investor, with the condition that the investor will receive interest. War bonds were loans given to the government, Continental Congress, to help fund the American Revolutionary War. Significance: This created a large public debt. Bond prices plummeted bc of inflation and speculation. Original investors were forced to sell their bonds at a huge loss. Wealthy people who bought the debt for pennies on the dollar stood to benefit a lot if the new gov't ever paid full face value (spoiler: this does happen later). The Continental Congress relied on borrowing (bonds) and the use of paper currency because raising taxes on citizens was ineffective - the AOC lacked the power to tax it's citizens (riots, evasion, protests towards raised taxes by Colonists). Note: these debts were later assumed by the new federal government under the Constitution issuing federal bonds to establish credit of new nation

Articles of Confederation

Definition: The preliminary document outlining the relationship between the states and the national government as a newly formed nation in the aftermath of the American War for Independence. The Articles stated that each state would "retain its sovereignty," and together, the states would form "a firm league of friendship with each other." States were given the right to impose tariffs and collect taxes, and each had one vote in Congress to pass a bill (supermajority of 9 out of 13) or to amend an Article (unanimous 13 out of 13 required). On the other hand, the national government was given very limited power. Congress could borrow, declare war, enter into treaties and alliances, settle disputes between states, regulate weights and measures, and oversee a national postal system. However, Congress could not impose taxes or use coercive force to enforce laws on the states. Significance: The AOC caused the "critical period," a difficult time in America following the War for Independence. The AOC rendered Congress powerless over the states, unable to pay off the multitude of war debts accumulated (the states decided how "valuable" their state was, which determined how much of the war debt they were responsible for), settle interstate disputes (interstate tariffs, discrimination, stop Britain from economically playing the states off of one another), save the country from the massive recession, and make any real change on the situation. Such a "critical period," caused by the AOC, prompted government officials to convene in the Constitutional Convention to create a new national document.

Shay's Rebellion

Definition: Shays' Rebellion was a Rebellion led by Daniel Shays, a former Revolutionary officer, taking place in Massachusetts. Massachusetts' state legislature raised taxes to repay its war debts to avoid inflation, but the increase resulted in pressure towards small farmers, many of which lost their property. The rebellion occurred in late summer of 1786, and at its height it included over 2,000 men. The goal of the rebellion was to prevent courts from seizing farmers' property when they could not pay their debts. The rebellion was stopped in 1787, but the Massachusetts legislature passed relief measures after the rebellion (postponement on debts). Significance: The rebellion showed that the new Confederation was in trouble regarding the economy and potential future class warfare. Showed weakness of AOC - unable to raise army to assist Massachusetts in suppressing a rebellion.

Rhode Island paper currency

Definition: Beginning in the early 1700s, Rhode Island, along with several other states, issued paper money to address shortages of hard currency (Gold and Silver coins). This was ultimately backed by the government. Rhode Island was especially aggressive in printing large amounts of paper currency compared to other colonies. Significance: Overprinting and rapid depreciation highlighted the dangers of uncontrolled state-issued money, causing economic instability and mistrust. This experience caused the government later to ban states from issuing their own paper currency, centralizing monetary power under the federal government.

"Vices of the Political System of the United States"

Definition: Madison's analysis and criticism of the United States after consulting history to educate his perspective on government. The vices include 1) the states' persistent violations of the AOC, due to the AOC having no way to enforce their own rules, and 2) state legislatures undercutting national interest (ex. interstate tariffs). He concluded his analysis by criticizing small republican governments, arguing that bigger republics worked better because there would be more factions with competing interests to check each other, rather than a single dominant faction over a small republic. Significance: Madison's "Vices" paved the way for constitutional reform. He articulated the flaws in the current American government, outlined by the AOC, and proposed solutions to each problem. Granting Congress the powers of "sanction" and "coercion," an "enlargement of the sphere" of democratic policymaking to weaken the influence of faction, and a general shift from state power to national power were central to Madison's proposal for a new government.

Faction

Definition: A political group (party) with a shared interest within a larger government system. Significance: The idea of faction was central to Madison's "Vices." Should a government have a small republic (as outlined in the AOC), the dominance of a singular faction is more probable, leading to an unbalanced system, a "tyranny of the majority." As Madison proposed, a larger republic would allow for more competing factions to check each other's interest. Such a system would result in sounder and fairer policies. This concept was partially responsible for the shift in power from states to national government (to enlarge the governmental sphere).

Annapolis Convention

Definition: The Annapolis meeting was a meeting of commissioners from five states in Annapolis, Maryland. It occurred in September 1786 and was for the purpose of addressing trade issues under the AOC. Only five states sent representatives to the meeting. They issued a call for a second, broader convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles. This led to the Constitutional Convention and the drafting of the US Constitution. Significance: This convention showed the structural weaknesses under the AOC (trade issues, not many representatives showed up).

Constitutional Convention

Definition: The Constitutional Convention was a meeting of representatives of each state to discuss the issues with the Articles of Confederation and how, if possible, they could fix them. Here, they decided that they would give Congress more power than what was available to them up to that point because it was too weak to do anything. Significance: It was where Madison first talked about the idea of a "federal negative" and where he convinced the other representatives that the Articles of Confederation were flawed.

Federal Negative

Definition: The Congressional power to veto a state law, an idea introduced by James Madison. Significance: The "Federal Negative" would shift the scale of power from the states to the national government-such an act would give national congress overarching power over the states, making the states subordinate to the national government. The benefit of the Federal Negative, Madison argued, would be to create a stronger centralized government and to stop states from legislatively warring with each other, hindering national progress (ex. interstate tariffs). Such a step would constitute (pun intended) a drastic change in the American governmental system. (Absolute VS Partial) The absolute Federal Negative, as the name suggests, refers to Congress' power to veto a state law in all cases whatsoever. This veto would still require a ⅔ majority. The partial Federal Negative would only give Congress the power to veto a state law if the state law was "unconstitutional." This reflected people's fears of giving the national government too much power through the absolute FN. However, since "unconstitionality" was not defined, the partial FN would render itself to be a case-by-case usage, with arguments about the constitutionality of the state law hindering the process. The way to avoid this problem would be to define every single possible scenario in the Constitution, which is unrealistic. (Spoiler to case study) The Federal Negative, both partial and absolute, was denied in the Constitutional Convention, as people were scared of giving the national government that much power. A few years later, however, the judicial system "embodied" the Federal Negative, with the absolute power to veto a state law if necessary. (I think. We talked about this for like 30 seconds in class).

Virginia Plan

Definition: The Virginia Plan was a proposal by James Madison at the Constitutional Convention. It called for a new, stronger national government with three branches. These branches were legislative, judicial, and executive. Significance: Served as a foundation for the Constitution. It also challenged the Articles of Confederation and laid the foundation for separation of powers and a strong federal system.

New Jersey Plan

Definition: The New Jersey Plan was a plan in opposition to how Madison proposed the government to be set up. While Madison's government would be set up through bicameralism and each state having a proportional amount of representatives to their population size, The New Jersey Plan would have retained the method from the Articles of Confederation where every state had the same amount of representatives. Significance: This showed how not everyone wanted to move on from some of the laws from the Articles of Confederation. While this could be due to legitimate reasons, it is also possible that they wanted to keep it this way so that the representatives of the smaller states would still retain a decent amount of power.

The Great Compromise

Definition: Madison presented the Virginia Plan (creation of two-house legislature w/ state's population determining representation in both) which was supported by larger states. Smaller states supported the New Jersey Plan (single-house Congress where each state had one vote - similar to AOC). A compromise was reached between the two plans where there would be two houses of Congress with the Senate (two senators per state) and the House of Representatives (representative by population). Significance: Bicameralism (two-house legislature), foundation of Constitution and helped ratify the Constitution, allowed convention to move forward by balancing interests of large and small states

⅗ Compromise

Definition: Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 of the constitution. This clause stated that 3/5ths of the enslaved population would be counted when determining each state's representation in the House of Representatives/electoral votes for presidents. Significance: Protects slavery in the constitution, blatant unequal representation, dehumanizes enslaved population

Election of the Senate

Definition: There was debate over how senators would be elected during the Constitutional Convention (1787). John Dickenson of Delaware suggested that the state legislatures should select the senators. In his plan, smaller states would have at least one senator and larger states would have a larger number of senators. Madison disagreed, wanting the election of the Senate to be in the hands of the House of Representatives. Madison wanted to keep the number of senators per state limited, so election of senators by House of Reps would make voting proportional to population, but keep the number of senators per state small (this was all outlined in Madison's Virginia Plan). The convention ended up compromising - two senators chosen per state by the state legislature. Significance: Since state legislatures have control over the senators, it exerts an extra check on federal power. This system of electing senators is no longer practiced anymore (changed in 17th amendment).

Nature of the Executive Compromise

Definition: Compromising on following questions: How strong should the executive be? Who should select the executive? How long should the executive's term be? Agreed on single president kept in check by other branches of gov't, who could veto laws (w/ ⅔ agreement of House and Senate), command military, negotiate treaties, wage war, and appoint officials. The Electoral College was chosen as the system to elect the president. The President would serve 4 year terms w/ the possibility of re-election. Significance: The checks on executive power ensured that the US would not become a monarchy. The Electoral College balanced the will of the people w/ the interests of the state by allowing each state to elect electors who choose the president. The 4 year term length w/ possibility for reelection balances need for stability w/ need to ensure president remains accountable to the people.

The Federalist Papers

Definition: series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the pseudonym Publius. They were published in NY and were to promote the ratification of the new US Constitution. Significance: Promote constitution, explain constitution, strong central government,, convince hesitant states

Federalists

Definition: The Federalists were supporters of the U.S Constitution who favored a strong central government to maintain order. They believed that a strong union would protect the nation from internal division and foreign threat. They argued that only a centralized system could effectively manage commerce, defense and diplomacy, setting the stage for the development of the federal government as it exists today. Significance: The Federalists, led by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison, played a key role in the ratification of the U.S Constitution, by writing a series of papers, persuading the skeptical states. They also laid the foundation for the first political party, shaping early US politics.

Anti-Federalists

Definition: The Anti Federalists were opponents of ratification that insisted that the Constitution shifted the balance between liberty and power too far in the direction of the latter. Significance: They were partially successful in their opposition to the original constitution because their opposition led to the ratification of the bill of rights in 1791. They were also as successful as the federalists because they were not unified under one common opposition to the Constitution (had many different reasons for opposing the constitution) which led to disunity.

Bill of Rights

Definition: The Bill of Rights were the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It was ratified in 1791, and was proposed by James Madison to Congress in order to protect natural rights such as the freedom of speech, of religion, and to bear arms. Madison based these ten amendments on many state constitutions, which in his eyes, contained more specific declarations of each citizens' rights. Significance: The Bill of Rights guaranteed many liberties to citizens that were originally not specifically stated. Additionally, it was also an example of how concentrated national power posed the greatest threat to freedom, reinforcing the idea that the U.S. government cannot violate peoples' natural rights.

The Title for the Executive

Definition: The debate over the executive's title took place during the first session of the US Congress in 1789. The controversy was over how to address the executive (more regal vs. simple). John Adams (+most of the senate) supported a more regal title (His Highness/Majesty). He feared a weak executive and thought that a regal title would give the executive more credit/power. Madison/Washington (+ most of the House of Reps) supported a more simple title because it aligned with the democratic and egalitarian principles of the revolution (all men are equal including the president who is a servant of the people). The simple title won AKA president. Significance: The simple title of president highlights the democratic principles of the new national avoidance of monarchy. It solidified the president's role as a public servant.

Cabinet

Definition: A group of the President's top advisors, typically the heads of the executive departments, who help the President make decisions and implement federal policies. Significance: Secretaries of State, Treasury, Defense, and other high ranking officials that were appointed by the president (approved by the Senate, of course), and held positions to run their respective executive departments and advise the president

Two Party System

Definition: The Federalists and Democratic Republicans. Both had contrasting interests. Federalists: Hamilton, Washington, Madison (originally); centralized strong government; industrial, commercial economy, supported by merchants, investors, elites; For assumption of debt & creation of a National Bank; For trade with British; Loose constitutional interpretation. Democratic Republicans: Jefferson, Madison; Not too strong government, more power to the states; agrarian economy; supported by the "common people" - Farmers, artisans, typically southerners; against the assumption of debt & the national bank; pro-france foreign policy; strict constitutional interpretation. Significance: The differing viewpoints of the two parties shaped early post-revolutionary politics in America.

Federalists

Definition: Federalists were early American political leaders who supported a strong national government, a robust executive branch, and policies that promoted economic growth and stability. Also favored an industrial economy, opposed to Jefferson's agrarian economy. Significance: Ensured the ratification of the Constitution and the formation of one of the 1st political parties in the U.S.

Democratic Republicans

Definition: The Democratic-Republicans were a US political party founded in the early 1790s by Thoimas Jefferson and James Madison. They emerged in opposition to the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton. The Democratic-Republicans believed in a strict interpretation of the Constitution, a limited federal government, and greater power for state governments. They favored an agrarian-based economy and supported the "common man," particularly farmers and rural communities, over the wealthy elites and merchants. Significance: The Democratic Republicans became the leading party in the early 1800s, with Jefferson's 1800 election marking the first peaceful transfer of power. They shaped US politics by promoting states' rights, expanding democracy, and supporting an agrarian vision of America.

Assumption of the Debt

Definition: Part of Hamilton's program. He wanted to create conditions where people could loan money to the government by buying their bonds and be assured that they would be paid back. He also needed the federal government to assume responsibility for paying off its full face value of debt from the War of Independence and debt from the states. He also wanted to replace old debts with interest-bearing bonds issued to government creditors. Significance: This would hopefully help with some of the national debt and create a nation-wide fix to the debt issue. Also, by giving the government's creditors these new bonds, they would promote the nation's stability as the federal government became more economically secure, thus being more inclined to pay its debts.

National Bank

Definition: Created by Hamilton as a separate and private corporation, not a branch of the government. It was modeled after the Bank of England. The National Bank could hold public funds, issue banknotes serving as currency, and make loans to the government. Significance: The United States needed a separate institution to deal with national money for the states as well as the government that could still return profit to stockholders.

Neutrality Proclamation

Definition: Washington's 1793 Neutrality Proclamation established the US as neutral regarding European conflicts (specifically, the French Revolution). Significance: This neutrality was a controversial action, as it went against the alliance between America and France during the War for Independence. While many supported the French Revolution and implored Washington to aid the French (primarily the democratic republicans), the increasing radicality of the Revolution, marked by the execution of the monarch and aristocrats, made the Federalists wary of sparking possible anarchy at home. In addition, America wasn't in the best state to aid another country (were still in massive debt). All of this led to Washington establishing neutrality over the situation.

Jay's Treaty

Definition: A treaty with Britain that was negotiated in 1794 by Chief Justice John Jay where Britain agreed to vacate their forts in the Northwest Territories and other disagreements (ex. the border with Canada, prewar debts, and shipping claims) would be settled by commission. Significance: This treaty caused severe controversy in Washington's presidency because some people that were against this administration believed that the treaty aligned the US more with Britain than France, who helped them win their war against Britain. This treaty led to the formation of an organized opposition party.

Washington's Farewell Address

Definition: In his Farewell Address, Washington announces his decision to retire as President. He talks about the importance of staying united as a country and not engaging with foreign countries politically, but keeping the relationship between the countries open commercially. Significance: It served as the "opening gun" in the next presidential campaign because it indirectly defended Jay's Treaty, which was already a sensitive subject in the United States, as well as directly alert the public to French intrigue in the capital of the nation.