New Englishes termen

Fuck you fuck fuck you Frank en Peter xx

Lingua franca

A language that serves as a common means of communication between speakers of different native languages, often used in trade and diplomacy

The use of a language between groups of which one of the groups does not have English as their native language

Global language

A language which is used widely for international communication, transcending cultural and linguistic boundaries, international English

Syntactic

Relating to the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence

= the formal structure of sentences

Pragmatic/pragmatic markers

How context and social factors influence the meaning and interpretation of language

Pragmatic markers = functional linguistic items that are essential for the organisation and structure of discourse, but do not necessarily change the meaning of an utterance, they are used to mark the speaker’s atitude

English diaspora

Expansion of English across the world

Pax Britanicca

English expansion (colonisation), British dominance around the 1800’s

Marks the consolidation of status of the British Empire as the political superpower at the time

New Englishes

The spreading of the English language due to colonisation, and English staying in these new regions

= result form colonization, but has been imposed on a population that is not EU based or does not have a EU heritage

= where typically other languages than English have been around before the advent of English

The regional and national varieties of English that have developed in areas where English is not the native language but is used as a second language or lingua franca. These varieties are not simply imperfect imitations of Standard English – reflect the influence of local languages and cultures. 

→ have deviant grammar from other varieties of English

ESL

English as a Second Language

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

ELF

English as a Lingua Francaused for communication between speakers of different native languages.

Estuary English

Term to describe standard English

Estuary refering to Thames in London, South East area of GB

Aboriginals

Native speakers, more specifically La person belonging to one of the indigenous peoples of Australia

Language contact

Phenomenon where speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact and influence each other

Dialectologists

People who study the different varities of English/dialects around the world

Phonology

The branch of linguistics that deals with systems of sounds (including or excluding phonetics), within a language or between different languages)

Accent

Reference to pronounciation, the way you speak another language, associated with a particular country, area or social class

Dialect

The way you speak your own language

(includes phonology, but also different grammar, including divergences coming from the lexicon)

Koiné language

Koiné = refers to Greek in the Hellenistic empire, the Greeks where expanding their area and needed a lingua franca to communicate in the empire (the use of Greek in Hellenistic and Roman antiquity)

Nowadays refers to a general: super national form of a language where it does not stay in its boundaries where it originated, but spread outwards

= a “compromise,” “middle-of-the-road” variety in language

Convergence

When people come together & accommodate in order to communicate, language becomes structurally similar due to prolonged language contact and mutual influence

Divergence

The process through which a single language splits into multiple languages due to factors such as geographical separation, social changes, and historical developments

= because of this —> different ESL-varieties

= Symbolic identity is the most important drive for divergence

‘Haves’

People who have mastered some kind of standard that is officially recognized

= countries of which speakers are considered natives, decide what good language is, growing convergence between haves

‘Have-nots’

They speak English but it’s not recognized as a standard yet

= countries of which speakers aren’t considered natives, no ownership and growing divergence

Mid - Atlantic

Also reffered to as Transatlantic, is a blend of American and British English, often perceived as refined and elevated

Mutual intelligibility

A combination between convergence and divergence which reflelcts the different types of forces that are at issue in the development of English worldwide

Hegemonic

Ruling or dominant in a political or social context

Particularity

Influence of local features on variety, variety expresses local identity

Universality

Ideal: one norm for language, where one variety becomes standard

Francophonie

A loosely united group of nations in which French is a first, official, or culturally significant language (France, Canada, Belgium, Benin, Congo, Madagascar, Senegal,…)

Melting pot

A metaphor for describing an ideal in which different cultures live together

= different cultural elements of different communities melting together into a common culture

= tossed salad/ salad bowl (Canadian) refers to the same but less homogeneously interpreted = different cultures remain distinct and side-by-side

= Immigrants and other groups assimilate into the dominant culture, adopting common values, costums and beliefs

Assimilation

Give up your culture

= Refers to the cultures brought along by people living elsewhere and how they relate to the original culture of the territory where they arrive

= Distinction between assimilation and integration: assimilation is stronger in terms of adapting to the culture of the territory where they arrive (giving up your own culture), integration is less strong relationship between culture of newly arriving people and original inhabitants

Integration

Contribute, but keep your own culture

= Distinction between assimilation and integration: assimilation is stronger in terms of adapting to the culture of the territory where they arrive (giving up your own culture), integration is less strong relationship between culture of newly arriving people and original inhabitants

English only

English as only official language

English plus

Integration: English & other languages, promotes acceptance of other languages

SED

Survey of English Dialect

(refers to the dialect map made of England in the 1960’s with 13 dialects)

Isogloss(es)

Line that marks a boundary between different areas with different dialects, varieties of a language

Borders of linguistically relevant features

= iso: the same: regions where same phenomenon is going on

+ gloss: language: regions wherelinguistic variety is assumed to be spokenUnion of the Crowns

Union of the Crowns

Political union of England and Scotland, later on referred to as Great Britain

Anglicalisation

Anglicisation or anglicization is a form of cultural assimilation whereby something non-English becomes assimilated into or influenced by the culture of England

Lallans

A distinctive Scottish literary form of English, based on standard older Scots, spoken in the Lowlands of Scotland

= Variety of Scots spoken in the Southern part of Scotland where it survived the longest

= Native Scot speakers

Pidgin

A grammatically simplified form of a language, some elements of which are taken from local languages, used for communication between people not sharing a common language

Creoles

A mother tongue formed from the contact of a European language (especially English, French, Spanish, or Portuguese) with local languages (especially African languages spoken by slaves in the West Indies)

Creolisation

The process by which elements/languages of different cultures are blended together to create a new culture or language

Decreolisation

Speakers of a variety are tending more to the standard variety, instead of minority variety

= tendency of creole to turn towards standard language that was the input for creole

= linguistic process where a creole language, in contact with a more prestigious language, gradually adopts features, losing it’s creole characteristics

Somatic language

A language which uses the body instead of words and feelings (Maltese, Hebrew,..)

Setller Englishes

The result of British colonization outside EU, Australian, American, Canadian, African, New Zealand English, … ‘white varieties’ or ‘European based varieties’

Setller colonies

White Europeans of the old world settleing in various parts of the ‘undiscovered’ world

Colonies where a colonizing group (often a new settler population) aims to displace/replace the native or pre-existing population of a land, establishing a new society and often leading to the displacement or extermination of the indigenous people. This type of colonialism is characterized by the ongoing occupation and control of land and resources, often with the goal of establishing a permanent, distinct settler society. 

→ people went to other places to stay there and came up with their own variety of English

WASP

White Anglo-Saxon Protestant

Fargo

A variety of English in Minnesota, up north

= Regional feature combined with immigrant communities that you can find there

= Most prominent influence with Fargo is Scandinavian

Nativisation

Language started out as foreign language, became nativized —> speakers made language their own and language starts serving an identity purpose

Heritage language

Language that you brought with you, a link to original culture that you consider yourself to be a part of

Hydronyms

Is a kind of toponym (proper name for a geographical feature/place name)

= more related to referring to rivers or waterbody parts,

= *rei is the first etymological word of which a lot of rivers have been derived

The Pale

English Pale = was the part of Ireland directly under the control of the English government in the Late Middle Ages

= Region around Dublin directly under English control

Diglossia

Situation between bilingualism and monolingualism

= two or more language varieties exist in a speech community, with each variety serving distinct functions. One variety is typically a highly codified "High" (H) variety used in formal contexts like literature, education, and government, while the other is a "Low" (L) variety used in everyday conversation and informal settings. 

Gealtacht

Used to describe the regions in Ireland in which the Irish language is, or was until recently, the primary spoken language

Panlectal identity hypothesis

John Harris, Hiberno English

Harris challenges the assumption that all dialects of a single language share a common underlying grammatical core and differ only in low-level realizations (according to Labov) He contends that this view oversimplifies the structural differences between dialects and fails to account for the unique syntactic features that emerge in dialectal divergence.

= dialects are not qualitiatively different languages, but rather variations that result from the application of this core grammar in different ways

= panlectal identity hypothesis, according to him, is therefore wrong since varieties of the same language can have a different grammatical structures

= therefore HIberno differentiates incertain aspects from Standard Enlish (ste)

Superstrate

Dominant language in lexical borrowing

= a dominant language that influences another language, typically in contact situations like colonization or migration, providing vocabulary and other features

= a language or aspect of a language which affects another less prestigious or socially and culturally dominated language

Substrate

The language which gets influenced in lexical borrowing

= a language whose features (like vocabulary, syntax, or phonology) are influenced by another, usually more dominant, language, often after a community of speakers has shifted to the new language

Cleft

A sentence in which an element is emphasized by being put in a separate clause, with the use of an empty introductory word such as it or that

= in relation to Hiberno English

= Cleft sentences are overused

= used as a focussing purpose

= Instead of saying "Joe called," you might use a cleft sentence like "It was Joe who called," to emphasize that it was Joe who made the call. 

PI and PII construction

A type of construction in which you refer to certain submeanings

= submeanings = hot-news past, resultative, indefinite anterior, extended now

PII = resultative

PI = all the other ones

S(S)E

Standard (Southern) English

HE

Hiberno English

STE

Standard English

Satzklammer structure

Or a ‘sentence bracket’ structure = verb form consisting of more than one verb: objects, if they are expressed, bracketed between auxiliary and participle

clitics

Short pronouns that stand for a larger expression

Calque

A word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation

= literal translation of Gaelic: loan translation

= involves translating the individual components of a term rather than directly borrowing the term itself

= "Groundhog" in English is often considered a calque from the Dutch phrase "aardhond", which translates to "ground dog"

Acrolect

In language = a variety that is closest to standard, fewest differences

Mesolectal

In language = in between the standard and a variety

Basilect

In language = a variety that is furthest removed from the standard

= a less prestigious dialect or variety of a particular language

Worm’s eye approach/atomistic approach

Labov creates this approach, Harris finds it problematic

= If you look at typical features of vernacular varieties of English (nonstandard varieties) and what they have in common, and you look at them individually it is problematic

You are looking at pares of alternating forms in isolation from other parts of grammar

= according to Labov, people look at the structures one by one, without embedding them in a more general approach —> this is what Harris critisises

= too close by to see how particular phenomenon belongs to broader system → suggests to look at larger system of a certain variety, this way, varieties can be compared & panlectal hypothesis can be tested

Free variation

Refers to rule governed or structured variation

= Variation that is not random but dictated by social variables that are associated with who’s doing the speaking

= The phenomenon where two or more sounds or forms can appear in the same environment without causing a change in meaning or being considered incorrect

Schneider’s model of New English (5 stage model)

1) Foundation = colony is established

2) Exonormative stabilisation = colony becomes stable

3) Nativization = ties with the mother country weaken

4) Endonormative stabilisation = development of own norm

5) Differentiation = politically stable country

Genetic nativeness

Applies to the people growing up with English as L1 (inner circle varieties)

= those people have the control over the issues that relate to standardization, defining the norms of a given language

Functional nativeness

Acquiring English as L2, but in the course of their lives shifting to English as L1

= description of parts of the population that are situated in the outer circle of Kachu’s model

Communicative perspective

1) Setllers (STL)

= English as unifying language

2) Indiginous (IND)

= English as killer language

= Killer language = dominant, prestigious language that contributes to the extinction of other, especially minority languages. This process typically involves speakers shifting their allegiance to the dominant language, leading to the gradual decline and eventual death of their original language

Koinéization

Interlanguage ‘tussentaal’, result of people from various regions coming together and abandoning regionalisms or features of their dialect

= koiné language is some kind of dialect stripped of its regionalism (mix of varieties) —> mutual understanding between speakers

(accomodation to each others variants & communicational needs)

= linguistic process where new language varieties emerge from the mixing, leveling, and simplification of mutually intelligible dialects

Structural nativization

First attempt at nativizing English brought by settlers

Local idiosyncrasies

The unique, strange, or unusual behaviors, habits, or features that are peculiar to a specific place and its inhabitants

Codification

Description in terms of dictionaries, grammars, glossaries,..

= Process of standardizing a language, often by establishing a dominant dialect as the norm, developing a writing system, and creating normative rules for grammar, spelling, pronunciation, and vocabulary. This process typically involves publishing dictionaries, grammar books, and usage guidelines

Blue - backed speller

Book written by Noah Webster which thought people how to read/write/spell American English

AAVE

African American Vernacular English

English as a T-REX

English kills other languages by being too powerful/overwhelming/pushed

(colonisation)

(doesn’t give smaller, local languages a chance)

Settlement varieties

Settlement of the English people

= English speakers in these countries are considered native speakers

Spread of English had tree reactions

1) Opposition

= Tanzania, both English and Swahili

= Swahili as lingua franca

2) Compromise

= India, national language Hindi

= Both Hindi and English

3) Surrender

= Japan = Kinki being named Kinsai

Inroads

Word used in region where other word was used, dialect change

Goidelic/Brythonic

2 Celtic branches:

1) Goidelic (Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Manx)

2) Brythonic (Welsh, Cornish, Brittanic)

Singlish

When English becomes a home language

Gaelicisation

Gaelic Renaissance in Ireland

Statutes of Kilkenny

Set of laws to save Irish colony in Ireland: Irish culture & language was banned, as was intermarriage between Irish and English

Post - creool continuum

Happens when creoles keep evolving

Emancipatory effect

English becoming an interesting collection of varieties which reflect different identities & cultures within international culture

Koiné variety

Convergence, when different English dialects mix

Proper Englishes/Englishes Proper

A standard, formal and grammatical variety of the English language, often considered to be the most polished and correct form. It's characterized by the absence of slang, colloquialisms, and grammatical errors. In some contexts, it may also be associated with a specific accent, like Received Pronunciation (RP) in the UK or General American English (GAE) in the US. 

Native varieties of English

The different regional/social dialects of English spoken by native speakers – characterized by unique vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and idioms that reflect the cultural and historical influences of the region.

Varieties of English that are NOT the standard variety, but are still considered as a variety of their own

Plantation Colonies

colonies primarily focused on large-scale agricultural production, often using coerced labor, to export cash crops like tobacco, sugar, or cotton. These colonies are characterized by large estates or farms dedicated to a single crop, and their social and economic structures are heavily influenced by the needs of this dominant agricultural activity. 

→ wanted to exploit regions/people – cheap labor, either local or brought in – pidgins and creoles

Synchronic variety

Language variation that exists at a single point in time, such as a dialect or regional difference. It's the study of language at a specific moment, "freezing" it in time and analyzing its features without considering how it developed historically. For example, the differences between British English and American English are synchronic varieties.

Diachronic variety

The changes in a language or phenomenon over time. It's essentially the study of how something evolves or transforms across different historical periods. E.g.: the study of Old English and Modern English

Proper varieties of English

Proper" varieties of English, often referred to as standard or formal varieties, are forms of the language that are widely recognized and considered "correct" or "good" usage. These varieties are typically taught in schools and used in formal settings like writing, academic discourse, and professional contexts. They are characterized by specific grammatical rules, vocabulary, and pronunciation, which are often outlined in dictionaries and grammar guides. 

Vernacular

The informal use of a language, contained to a specific register of a language - the language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular country or region

World English

=/= as World Englishes

a concept where English is used as a global means of communication, similar to an international auxiliary language. It also refers to the movement towards a standard form of English that can be understood by speakers of all nationalities

World Englishes

=/= as World English

the diverse varieties of English that have emerged globally as the language adapts to different cultural contexts. It encompasses the various ways English is used and evolves in non-native English speaking countries, as well as regional and national varieties of English that have developed in specific locations

Old World Englishes

The diverse varieties of English spoken in the traditional areas where the language originated, primarily the United Kingdom and Ireland. These include regional dialects and social dialects within those areas. 

→ before colonization