Populism, Strategic Culture, and European Security: Key Terms and Concepts

What is populism?

A political concept focusing on the struggle between the corrupt elite and 'the people.'

What are the two types of populism?

Right-wing populism and left-wing populism.

What characterizes right-wing populism?

It is overly nationalist and focuses on anti-immigration and anti-European integration issues.

Which French political group exemplifies right-wing populism?

Marine Le Pen's National Rally.

What does left-wing populism emphasize?

Economic and class issues, along with anti-globalism and anti-trade policies.

Which political figure represents left-wing populism in France?

Jean-Luc Melenchon.

What does strategic culture refer to?

A nation's approach to foreign policy, particularly regarding power and military force.

How has Germany's strategic culture been shaped historically?

By the events of WWII and post-1945, focusing on multilateralism and diplomacy.

What significant shift is occurring in Germany's strategic culture?

A shift away from its previous stance due to the Russia-Ukraine war.

What triggered the Eurocrisis?

The Great Recession in the United States in 2007.

How did the EU respond to the Eurocrisis?

By proposing strict austerity measures and institutional reforms.

What structural flaw contributed to the Eurozone crisis?

An asymmetric union with centralized monetary policy and decentralized national control over fiscal policy.

What is hegemony?

The dominance of a state, particularly the United States post-Cold War.

What underpins US hegemony?

Unparalleled military strength and a vast network of global military bases.

Who was Konrad Adenauer?

Germany's first chancellor from 1949 to 1963, instrumental in postwar German identity.

What strategic policy did Adenauer promote?

Westbindung, which aimed for Germany's integration into Western institutions.

What did the Treaty of Maastricht accomplish?

Transformed the European Community into the European Union and established the Economic and Monetary Union.

What are the three core pillars established by the Treaty of Maastricht?

1) European Communities, 2) Common foreign and security policy, 3) Cooperation in justice and home affairs.

What is dirigisme?

A French model of state-directed economic management with active government intervention.

What challenges did dirigisme face in the early 1980s?

It led to economic reforms focused on reversing nationalizations and liberalizing labor markets.

What is Crimea's historical significance?

It was transferred to Ukraine by the Soviet Union in 1954 and was annexed by Russia in 2014.

What justification did Russia provide for the annexation of Crimea?

To protect ethnic Russians and prevent NATO's eastward expansion.

What are 'frozen' conflicts in Russian foreign policy?

Unresolved secessionist disputes used by Russia to maintain leverage over neighboring countries.

What are some examples of 'frozen' conflicts?

Transnistria in Moldova, Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia, and Nagorno-Karabakh.

How do 'frozen' conflicts serve Russia's strategic goals?

By perpetuating instability and undermining the sovereignty of affected nations.

What is the primary significance of conflicts in Russia's near abroad?

They serve Russia's strategic goal of perpetuating instability to undermine the sovereignty of affected countries and obstruct their integration into Western institutions like NATO.

What does the term 'near abroad' refer to in the context of Russia?

It describes the former Soviet republics that gained independence after the USSR's dissolution, which Russia views as part of its defense perimeter and sphere of influence.

What are some examples of 'frozen' conflicts established by Russia?

Transnistria, Nagorno-Karabakh, and the Donbas region in Ukraine.

What is neoliberalism?

An economic ideology prioritizing free markets and a reduced role for the state, emerging as a critique of the post-war consensus.

What economic policies are associated with Thatcherism in the UK?

Deregulation, privatization, and lower taxes aimed at spurring foreign investment and economic growth.

Who was General Charles de Gaulle?

The commander of the French forces during WWII and the first president of France's Fifth Republic, known for his emphasis on French sovereignty.

What principle did General de Gaulle emphasize regarding France's global role?

Strategic autonomy, ensuring France's independence and ability to make autonomous decisions in security and defense.

What is NATO expansionism?

The process of NATO admitting former Warsaw Pact members and Soviet republics post-Cold War, leading to increased tensions with Russia.

What was the significance of the 2008 NATO Summit in Bucharest?

It was an attempt by the US to secure NATO membership for Georgia and Ukraine, reflecting ongoing tensions with Russia.

What are NATO 'out of area' missions?

Operations conducted by NATO beyond its members' borders, marking a shift from defensive to proactive security roles.

What was Boris Yeltsin's role in post-Soviet Russia?

He was the first democratically elected president, pursuing a pro-Western foreign policy while facing economic challenges.

What were the 1957 Treaties of Rome?

Agreements signed by six European nations to promote economic integration and prevent future conflicts through interdependence.

What triggered NATO's intervention in the Kosovo War?

The conflict arose from the Kosovo Liberation Army's attacks on Serbian forces, leading to NATO's intervention after failed peace negotiations.

How did the Kosovo War affect Russia's stance on international law?

Russia condemned NATO's bypassing of the UN Security Council, viewing it as a violation of international law and a turning point in Russia-West relations.

What was the outcome of the Kosovo War?

Kosovo declared independence in 2008, which Russia later used to justify its actions in Georgia and Crimea.

What was one of the goals of Russia regarding the near abroad?

To prevent these countries from joining Western security organizations like NATO.

What did the expansion of NATO mean for Russia's defense perimeter?

It eroded Russia's defense perimeter and was viewed as a security threat by Moscow.

What did de Gaulle think about NATO and the EEC?

He was skeptical of NATO and the European Economic Community, fearing loss of French dominance.

What was the economic condition of Russia during Boris Yeltsin's presidency?

The economy faced hyperinflation, unemployment, and poverty, leading to a divide between oligarchs and the impoverished majority.

What was one of the consequences of NATO's expansion for Western Europe?

While Western Europe viewed it favorably, Russia perceived it as a hostile effort to extend Western influence.

What legacy did General de Gaulle leave regarding French sovereignty?

He established a tradition of strategic autonomy that modern French leaders continue to pursue.

What was the main criticism of neoliberalism?

It shifted focus from managing unemployment to controlling inflation, often at the expense of social welfare.

What was the main reason France and Germany blocked Georgia and Ukraine's NATO membership?

Fears of Russian retaliation due to historical tensions with post-Soviet states.

What was the outcome of the compromise regarding Georgia and Ukraine's NATO membership?

They were promised membership, but it did not provide immediate security or prevent Russian influence.

What event did Putin view as a provocation leading to the 2008 invasion of Georgia?

The promise of NATO membership for Georgia and Ukraine.

What triggered the 2008 Georgian War?

Russian intervention to support South Ossetia and Abkhazia against Georgia, following NATO membership blockage.

What was a significant consequence of the 2008 Georgian War?

It demonstrated Russia's willingness to use military force to assert dominance in the post-Soviet space.

What characterized the 2015 Refugee Crisis?

A surge of migrants and asylum seekers from Syria, the Middle East, North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa.

What decision did German Chancellor Angela Merkel make during the 2015 Refugee Crisis?

To welcome Syrian asylum seekers, leading to an influx of migrants in Germany.

How did the 2015 Refugee Crisis affect the EU's asylum rules?

It challenged the rules requiring migrants to file asylum applications in their first EU entry country.

What political party emerged as a response to the 2015 Refugee Crisis in Germany?

The Alternative for Germany (AfD), which shifted to a populist, anti-immigrant stance.

What does interdependence in liberal IR theory emphasize?

The advantages of deep economic, financial, and social connections between states that discourage conflict.

What is the alliance dilemma in international relations?

The tension between fear of abandonment by weaker allies and fear of entanglement by dominant powers.

What is Zeitenwende?

A German doctrine introduced by Chancellor Olaf Scholz in 2022, marking a shift from post-war caution to increased military readiness.

What is Emmanuel Macron known for in French politics?

Creating a centrist platform, advocating for pro-business reforms, and pushing for European strategic autonomy.

Who was Mikhail Gorbachev and what was his significance?

The last leader of the Soviet Union who introduced reforms and allowed the peaceful collapse of communism in Eastern Europe.

What is social democracy?

A political and economic model that seeks to balance capitalism with social welfare through an interventionist state.

What is grand strategy in international relations?

A comprehensive plan integrating military, economic, and diplomatic power to achieve long-term state goals.

What was the US post-Cold War grand strategy?

Liberal internationalism, based on open markets, security alliances like NATO, and multilateral institutions.

What does the term 'Alternative for Germany' (AfD) reflect?

Deep nationalist versus globalist differences in Germany and a challenge to the traditional political consensus.

What was a major criticism of the compromise regarding NATO membership for Georgia and Ukraine?

It did not provide immediate security and allowed Russia to undermine both countries.

How did the 2015 Refugee Crisis contribute to political changes in Europe?

It led to the rise of populist, anti-immigrant parties and exposed the lack of solidarity among EU member states.

What was one of Gorbachev's key foreign policy proposals?

Promoting mutual interdependence and a common Europe.

What does the fear of abandonment refer to in the alliance dilemma?

The concern of weaker allies that their dominant partner will reduce security commitments.

What does the fear of entanglement refer to in the alliance dilemma?

The concern of dominant powers being drawn into costly conflicts initiated by dependent allies.

What was the significance of the 2008 Georgian War in terms of military force?

It illustrated Russia's readiness to use overwhelming military force to maintain its influence.

What does the concept of Wandel durch Handel imply?

The idea that economic interdependence can lead to political cooperation and peace.

What is the International Liberal Order?

An open, loosely rule-based international system established by the United States post-WWII, characterized by rules, multilateral institutions, and security alliances among market democracies.

What are the goals of the International Liberal Order?

To promote globalization and interdependence, under the assumption that greater economic connection would discourage states from resorting to force.

What concept emphasizes competition among states for power and security?

The balance of power, which is a key idea within the realist perspective of international relations.

How did Nixon and Kissinger pursue balance of power policies?

By exploiting the hostile relations between the Soviet Union and China for strategic advantage.

What triggered the Wars of Former Yugoslavia?

The disintegration of the Yugoslav state during the 1990s, leading to ethnic conflicts in an anarchic security environment.

What was a significant outcome of the Wars of Former Yugoslavia for NATO?

NATO recognized the need to move beyond territorial defense, leading to its expansion into out-of-area missions like the Kosovo War.

What is the Donbas region known for?

It is a site of separatist insurgency backed by Russia, following Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014.

What was the outcome of the Orange Revolution in Ukraine?

A series of peaceful protests that successfully overturned a fraudulent presidential election, resulting in the victory of pro-Western Viktor Yushchenko.

What is German Ordoliberalismus?

An economic philosophy emphasizing rule-based order and fiscal discipline, influencing Germany's governance and European institutions.

What is the purpose of the Eurasian Union?

To serve as an economic and political bloc for the post-Soviet space, solidifying Russian dominance and containing EU and Chinese influence.

What does the BRICS forum represent?

A multilateral forum of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, serving as a platform for its members outside Western-dominated structures.

What is the significance of the US-UK Special Relationship?

It is a cornerstone of British foreign policy, characterized by high military interoperability and strategic significance for projecting influence globally.

What is the Franco-German Partnership known for?

Regarded as the 'motor' of European integration, established by the 1963 Elysée Treaty to embed Germany within a strong bilateral and European framework.

How did the rise of China and Russia threaten the International Liberal Order?

Their rise, along with America's tendency toward unilateralism, challenges the predictability and stability of the liberal system established post-WWII.

What role did local sentiments play in the Donbas conflict?

Many locals were receptive to pro-Russian groups due to the struggles following the post-Soviet collapse, influencing the separatist movement.

What was a key feature of the Orange Revolution's aftermath?

It led to widespread public dissatisfaction with the new government's economic performance and internal political struggles.

What was a major consequence of the Color Revolutions for Russia?

They were perceived as a direct threat by Russian leadership, prompting a counter-revolution to tighten state control and neutralize civil society.

What was the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Germany's fiscal policies?

Germany abandoned traditional fiscal conservatism to support EU-level, jointly financed economic recovery proposals.

What strategic advantage did leaders like Nixon and Kissinger seek through balance of power policies?

They aimed to prevent a single hegemon by forming coalitions among states to counterbalance dominant powers.

What was the outcome of NATO's intervention in the Kosovo War?

It marked NATO's shift to out-of-area missions, responding to the need for action beyond traditional territorial defense.

What does the term 'frozen conflict' refer to in the context of the Donbas region?

A situation where Russia supports separatists to prevent Ukraine from regaining full sovereignty over its territory.

What was the geopolitical significance of the Orange Revolution for Russia?

It was viewed by the Kremlin as an orchestrated threat by the United States to promote regime change within its sphere of influence.

What does the term 'liberal hegemonic bargain' refer to?

The arrangement where the United States provides security to its partners while constraining its own power to maintain global dominance.

What is the École Nationale d'Administration (ENA)?

A prestigious French graduate school that trains the nation's political and economic elite, fostering networks between public and private sectors.

What political ideology is associated with Margaret Thatcher?

Thatcherism, which challenged the UK's postwar social democratic consensus through low taxes, anti-nationalization, and a market-oriented approach.

What unintended consequence did Thatcher's acceptance of qualified majority voting have?

It fueled fears among Euroskeptics about British sovereignty being eroded by the European project.

Who is Donald Tusk?

A Polish political leader from the anti-communist Solidarity movement, known for advocating Poland's integration within European structures.

What is Viktor Orbán known for?

Leading Hungary with a model of governance that challenges EU democratic norms and exemplifies illiberal populism.