Lecture 10: Metabolism, Energy and Enzymes

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144 Terms

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Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a body's cells to maintain life.

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Redox Reactions

Chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons between two species.

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Anabolic Reactions

Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.

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Catabolic Reactions

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.

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Activation Energy

The minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction.

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Enzyme

A protein that acts as a catalyst to accelerate a chemical reaction.

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Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG)

The energy available in a system to do work, used to predict whether a reaction will occur spontaneously.

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Exergonic Reaction

A reaction that releases free energy (ΔG < 0) and occurs spontaneously.

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Endergonic Reaction

A reaction that requires free energy (ΔG > 0) to proceed, not spontaneous.

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ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy carrier in cells, used to power cellular processes.

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Potential Energy

Stored energy that has the potential to do work, often found in chemical bonds.

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Kinetic Energy

The energy of motion.

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Chemical Bonds

Forces that hold atoms together in a molecule, which can store or release energy when broken or formed.

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Covalent Bonds

Strong chemical bonds formed when atoms share electrons.

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Hydrogen Bonds

Weak interactions between polar molecules, crucial for the structure of proteins and nucleic acids.

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Allosteric Regulation

Regulation of an enzyme's activity through the binding of molecules at a site other than the active site.

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Competitive Inhibition

When a molecule similar to the substrate binds to the active site of an enzyme, blocking the actual substrate.

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Enzyme Affinity

The degree to which an enzyme can bind to its substrate; higher affinity results in faster reactions.

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Feedback Inhibition

A regulatory mechanism where the end product of a pathway inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.

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Thermodynamics

The study of energy transformations and the laws governing them.

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First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred.

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Second Law of Thermodynamics

In any energy transfer, the total entropy (disorder) of a system will tend to increase.

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Enzyme Kinetics

The study of the rates of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

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Substrate

The specific reactant an enzyme acts upon.

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Induced Fit Model

A model describing how enzymes change shape to better fit the substrate upon binding.

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Cofactor

A non-protein molecule or ion that assists enzyme activity, often a metal ion.

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Coenzyme

An organic non-protein molecule that assists in enzyme activity, often derived from vitamins.

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Prosthetic Group

A non-polypeptide unit tightly attached to an enzyme that is required for its activity.

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Metabolic Pathway

A series of interconnected enzymatic reactions that convert a substrate into a product.

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Thermal Energy

Energy associated with the temperature of an object; can be transferred as heat.

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Entropy

A measure of disorder or randomness in a system.

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Caloric Metabolism

The process by which the body converts food into energy.

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Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction in which water is used to break down a compound.

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Phosphorylation

The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often activating or deactivating it.

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NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)

A coenzyme involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another.

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Enzyme Specificity

The tendency of an enzyme to catalyze a specific reaction for a particular substrate.

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Binding Site

The region on an enzyme where substrates bind.

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Transition State

An unstable state during a chemical reaction where reactants are converted to products.

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Mitochondria

Organelles that are the sites of cellular respiration, producing ATP.

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Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, and water.

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Glycolysis

The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

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Citric Acid Cycle

A series of enzymatic reactions that further oxidize glucose derivatives to produce ATP and electron carriers.

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Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants convert light energy into chemical energy in glucose.

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Lipids

Fatty acids and their derivatives, which are insoluble in water and serve as energy stores.

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Carbohydrates

Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, primarily serving as energy sources.

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Proteins

Polymers of amino acids that perform various functions in the body, including catalyzing metabolic reactions.

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Metabolomics

The study of chemical processes involving metabolites.

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Apoptosis

Programmed cell death, often mediated by specific metabolic pathways.

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Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions in an organism.

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Cytosol

The aqueous component of the cytoplasm where metabolic pathways occur.

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Nucleic Acids

Biomolecules, such as DNA and RNA, that carry genetic information.

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Recycling

The reuse of molecules or components in metabolic pathways.

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Ribosomes

Cellular structures that synthesize proteins from amino acids.

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Energetic Coupling

The process of using the energy released from one reaction to drive another.

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Energy Budget

The balance of energy intake and expenditure in a system.

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Electron Transport Chain

A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons to generate ATP in cellular respiration.

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Oxidative Phosphorylation

The process of generating ATP using the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

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Chemiosmosis

The movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, driving ATP synthesis.

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Fermentation

A metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen.

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Acetyl-CoA

A key molecule in metabolism that is involved in the citric acid cycle.

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Glycogen

A stored form of glucose, primarily found in liver and muscle cells.

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Excretion

The process of eliminating waste products from the body.

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Synthesis

The process of combining simple molecules to form complex substances.

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Signal Transduction

The process by which a cellular signal is transmitted through a cell to cause a response.

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Metabolic Flux

The rate at which substrates and products flow through a metabolic pathway.

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Metabolic Syndrome

A cluster of conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

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Enzyme Inhibition

A decrease in enzyme activity due to the binding of an inhibitor.

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Antagotism

When one substance interferes with the action of another, often in metabolic processes.

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Substrate-level Phosphorylation

The direct synthesis of ATP from ADP and a substrate during specific metabolic reactions.

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Cellular Environment

The conditions within a cell, including pH, temperature, and ion concentration.

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Eukaryotic Cell

A cell that has a nucleus enclosed within membranes.

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Prokaryotic Cell

A single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus.

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Biochemical Pathway

A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell.

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Chemoprevention

The use of natural or synthetic substances to suppress, prevent, or reverse cancer.

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Nutrient Interconversion

The process of converting one nutrient type into another for metabolism.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum

An organelle that serves various functions including synthesis of proteins and lipids.

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Golgi Apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for export.

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Lysosomes

Cell organelles that contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials.

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Peroxisomes

Cell organelles involved in lipid metabolism and the detoxification of harmful compounds.

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Cytoplasm

The material within a cell, excluding the nucleus.

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Fructose

A simple sugar found in many plants, often used as an energy source from carbohydrates.

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Galactose

A sugar that is part of lactose and helps form other carbohydrates.

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Hexokinase

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis.

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Catalase

An enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

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Proteolysis

The breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids.

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Desaturation

The process of removing hydrogen atoms from a fat molecule, resulting in unsaturated fats.

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Synthesis of Steroids

The biochemical pathway that produces steroid hormones from cholesterol.

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Chloroplast

An organelle in plant cells that conducts photosynthesis.

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Xylose

A sugar that occurs mainly in the woody parts of plants.

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Manose

A sugar, important for glycosylation in proteins.

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Metabolite

A substance made during metabolism.

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Respiration

The process of utilizing oxygen to convert food into energy.

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Gene Regulation

The process of turning genes on or off to control protein production.

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Phenotype

The physical representation of an organism's traits as determined by genes.

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Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism.

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Enzymatic Activity

The rate at which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction.

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Covalent Bonds

Strong chemical bonds where atoms share pairs of electrons.

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Hydrophobic Interaction

Interactions between non-polar molecules in a polar solvent, such as water.

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Micelle

A structure formed by the aggregation of surfactant molecules in a colloidal solution.

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Lipid Bilayer

The basic structural unit of all cell membranes, comprising two layers of phospholipids.