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Metabolism
The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a body's cells to maintain life.
Redox Reactions
Chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons between two species.
Anabolic Reactions
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.
Catabolic Reactions
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.
Activation Energy
The minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction.
Enzyme
A protein that acts as a catalyst to accelerate a chemical reaction.
Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG)
The energy available in a system to do work, used to predict whether a reaction will occur spontaneously.
Exergonic Reaction
A reaction that releases free energy (ΔG < 0) and occurs spontaneously.
Endergonic Reaction
A reaction that requires free energy (ΔG > 0) to proceed, not spontaneous.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
The primary energy carrier in cells, used to power cellular processes.
Potential Energy
Stored energy that has the potential to do work, often found in chemical bonds.
Kinetic Energy
The energy of motion.
Chemical Bonds
Forces that hold atoms together in a molecule, which can store or release energy when broken or formed.
Covalent Bonds
Strong chemical bonds formed when atoms share electrons.
Hydrogen Bonds
Weak interactions between polar molecules, crucial for the structure of proteins and nucleic acids.
Allosteric Regulation
Regulation of an enzyme's activity through the binding of molecules at a site other than the active site.
Competitive Inhibition
When a molecule similar to the substrate binds to the active site of an enzyme, blocking the actual substrate.
Enzyme Affinity
The degree to which an enzyme can bind to its substrate; higher affinity results in faster reactions.
Feedback Inhibition
A regulatory mechanism where the end product of a pathway inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.
Thermodynamics
The study of energy transformations and the laws governing them.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
In any energy transfer, the total entropy (disorder) of a system will tend to increase.
Enzyme Kinetics
The study of the rates of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Substrate
The specific reactant an enzyme acts upon.
Induced Fit Model
A model describing how enzymes change shape to better fit the substrate upon binding.
Cofactor
A non-protein molecule or ion that assists enzyme activity, often a metal ion.
Coenzyme
An organic non-protein molecule that assists in enzyme activity, often derived from vitamins.
Prosthetic Group
A non-polypeptide unit tightly attached to an enzyme that is required for its activity.
Metabolic Pathway
A series of interconnected enzymatic reactions that convert a substrate into a product.
Thermal Energy
Energy associated with the temperature of an object; can be transferred as heat.
Entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness in a system.
Caloric Metabolism
The process by which the body converts food into energy.
Hydrolysis
A chemical reaction in which water is used to break down a compound.
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often activating or deactivating it.
NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
A coenzyme involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another.
Enzyme Specificity
The tendency of an enzyme to catalyze a specific reaction for a particular substrate.
Binding Site
The region on an enzyme where substrates bind.
Transition State
An unstable state during a chemical reaction where reactants are converted to products.
Mitochondria
Organelles that are the sites of cellular respiration, producing ATP.
Cellular Respiration
The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, and water.
Glycolysis
The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.
Citric Acid Cycle
A series of enzymatic reactions that further oxidize glucose derivatives to produce ATP and electron carriers.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants convert light energy into chemical energy in glucose.
Lipids
Fatty acids and their derivatives, which are insoluble in water and serve as energy stores.
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, primarily serving as energy sources.
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids that perform various functions in the body, including catalyzing metabolic reactions.
Metabolomics
The study of chemical processes involving metabolites.
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death, often mediated by specific metabolic pathways.
Homeostasis
The maintenance of stable internal conditions in an organism.
Cytosol
The aqueous component of the cytoplasm where metabolic pathways occur.
Nucleic Acids
Biomolecules, such as DNA and RNA, that carry genetic information.
Recycling
The reuse of molecules or components in metabolic pathways.
Ribosomes
Cellular structures that synthesize proteins from amino acids.
Energetic Coupling
The process of using the energy released from one reaction to drive another.
Energy Budget
The balance of energy intake and expenditure in a system.
Electron Transport Chain
A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons to generate ATP in cellular respiration.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The process of generating ATP using the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.
Chemiosmosis
The movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, driving ATP synthesis.
Fermentation
A metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen.
Acetyl-CoA
A key molecule in metabolism that is involved in the citric acid cycle.
Glycogen
A stored form of glucose, primarily found in liver and muscle cells.
Excretion
The process of eliminating waste products from the body.
Synthesis
The process of combining simple molecules to form complex substances.
Signal Transduction
The process by which a cellular signal is transmitted through a cell to cause a response.
Metabolic Flux
The rate at which substrates and products flow through a metabolic pathway.
Metabolic Syndrome
A cluster of conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.
Enzyme Inhibition
A decrease in enzyme activity due to the binding of an inhibitor.
Antagotism
When one substance interferes with the action of another, often in metabolic processes.
Substrate-level Phosphorylation
The direct synthesis of ATP from ADP and a substrate during specific metabolic reactions.
Cellular Environment
The conditions within a cell, including pH, temperature, and ion concentration.
Eukaryotic Cell
A cell that has a nucleus enclosed within membranes.
Prokaryotic Cell
A single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus.
Biochemical Pathway
A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell.
Chemoprevention
The use of natural or synthetic substances to suppress, prevent, or reverse cancer.
Nutrient Interconversion
The process of converting one nutrient type into another for metabolism.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
An organelle that serves various functions including synthesis of proteins and lipids.
Golgi Apparatus
An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for export.
Lysosomes
Cell organelles that contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials.
Peroxisomes
Cell organelles involved in lipid metabolism and the detoxification of harmful compounds.
Cytoplasm
The material within a cell, excluding the nucleus.
Fructose
A simple sugar found in many plants, often used as an energy source from carbohydrates.
Galactose
A sugar that is part of lactose and helps form other carbohydrates.
Hexokinase
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis.
Catalase
An enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
Proteolysis
The breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids.
Desaturation
The process of removing hydrogen atoms from a fat molecule, resulting in unsaturated fats.
Synthesis of Steroids
The biochemical pathway that produces steroid hormones from cholesterol.
Chloroplast
An organelle in plant cells that conducts photosynthesis.
Xylose
A sugar that occurs mainly in the woody parts of plants.
Manose
A sugar, important for glycosylation in proteins.
Metabolite
A substance made during metabolism.
Respiration
The process of utilizing oxygen to convert food into energy.
Gene Regulation
The process of turning genes on or off to control protein production.
Phenotype
The physical representation of an organism's traits as determined by genes.
Genotype
The genetic makeup of an organism.
Enzymatic Activity
The rate at which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction.
Covalent Bonds
Strong chemical bonds where atoms share pairs of electrons.
Hydrophobic Interaction
Interactions between non-polar molecules in a polar solvent, such as water.
Micelle
A structure formed by the aggregation of surfactant molecules in a colloidal solution.
Lipid Bilayer
The basic structural unit of all cell membranes, comprising two layers of phospholipids.