Psychology VCE Unit 1, Chapter 3

Nature

Hereditary factors that influence an individual's psychological development.

Nurture

Environmental factors and experiences that influence an individual's psychological development.

Nature versus nurture debate

The debate surrounding whether nature (hereditary factors) or nurture (environmental factors) has the greater influence on an individual's psychological development.

How do psychologists currently view the nature versus nurture debate?

Psychologists generally view nature and nurture as having an interactive influence, meaning both contribute to and interact with each other to influence psychological development.

Interactive influence

The process in which two or more factors influence each other or work together to affect an outcome.

How do nature and nurture interact?

Hereditary factors can influence how an individual responds to their environment, while environmental experiences can influence how inherited characteristics are expressed and developed.

How can identical twins raised apart provide evidence for nature?

If identical twins develop similar characteristics despite growing up in different environments, their shared hereditary factors may have contributed to those similarities.

How can identical twins raised apart provide evidence for nurture?

If identical twins develop different characteristics despite having the same genetic material, differences in their environments may have contributed to those differences.

How should you explain a nature example in an application question?

Identify the hereditary or biological factor and explain how it could contribute to the individual's psychological development.

How should you explain a nurture example in an application question?

Identify the relevant environmental factor and explain how the individual's experiences or environment could influence their psychological development.

Why should nature and nurture not usually be presented as completely separate causes?

Psychologists generally recognise that hereditary and environmental factors interact, so psychological development is rarely explained entirely by either nature or nurture.

Biopsychosocial model

A holistic framework for understanding psychological development through the combined influence of biological, psychological and social factors.

Holistic

Considering the whole individual by taking multiple interacting factors into account rather than focusing on one factor alone.

Why is the biopsychosocial model holistic?

It addresses the combined influence of biological, psychological and social factors on an individual's psychological development.

Biological factors

Physical or physiological influences on psychological development, including genetics, hormones, sleep, diet and neurological functioning.

Genetics

A biological factor involving inherited characteristics or genetic information that can influence psychological development.

Hormones

Chemical messengers in the body that can influence physiological and psychological functioning.

Sleep

A biological factor that can influence psychological functioning, cognition, mood and development.

Diet

A biological factor that can influence physical and psychological functioning and development.

Neurological functioning

The functioning of the brain and nervous system, which can influence psychological development and behaviour.

Psychological factors

Factors involving an individual's thoughts, emotions, cognitions, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and psychological experiences.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing and using information, including thinking, reasoning, memory and problem-solving.

Attitude

A person's relatively enduring evaluation or outlook towards a person, object, activity or situation.

Self-efficacy

An individual's belief in their ability to successfully perform a task or achieve a goal.

Attachment

The emotional bond that develops between an individual and another person, particularly between a child and caregiver.

Secure attachment

A strong emotional bond in which a child generally develops trust that their caregiver will provide support and respond to their needs.

Insecure attachment

An attachment relationship in which the child does not develop the same level of trust or security in the availability or responsiveness of their caregiver.

Mistrust

A lack of confidence or trust in another person or group, which can influence an individual's thoughts, emotions and behaviour.

Social factors

Factors arising from an individual's relationships, interactions and broader social environment, including family, peers, education, culture and socioeconomic circumstances.

Family environment

The social conditions and relationships within an individual's family that can influence psychological development.

Education

A social influence involving formal or informal learning opportunities that can affect psychological development and skill development.

Social support

Assistance, encouragement or resources provided by other people or social groups.

Socioeconomic status

A measure relating to social and economic circumstances, which can influence access to resources and opportunities.

How can social factors influence psychological factors?

Experiences such as education, encouragement and social support can influence psychological factors such as attitudes, confidence and self-efficacy.

How can psychological factors influence social factors?

Psychological characteristics such as mistrust, anxiety or confidence can influence how an individual interacts with others and participates socially.

How should you answer a question asking how psychological and social factors interact?

Identify the psychological factor, identify the social factor, and explicitly explain how one may influence or contribute to the other.

How could insecure attachment lead to a social factor?

Insecure attachment may contribute to mistrust of others, which may then lead to avoidance of social interaction or social isolation.

How could a social factor lead to a psychological factor?

A supportive family environment and encouragement may increase an individual's positive attitude and self-efficacy towards learning a skill.

How should you answer a biopsychosocial application question?

Identify the relevant biological, psychological or social factor, explain its influence on psychological development, and explicitly describe any interaction with another factor if relevant.

Typical behaviour

Behaviour that is in line with how an individual usually behaves.

Why is typical behaviour considered circumstantial?

A behaviour that appears unusual to other people may still be typical for an individual if it is consistent with how that individual usually behaves and their circumstances.

Atypical behaviour

Behaviour or development that noticeably and significantly differs from what is usual or appropriate.

Atypical development

Development that noticeably differs in a significant way from what is usual or appropriate for individuals of a similar age or relevant comparison group.

Normality

Behaviour, thinking or development that is considered typical within a relevant individual, group, culture or population.

Why is there not always a clear boundary between normal and abnormal behaviour?

Human behaviour exists on a continuum, and natural individual differences mean that behaviour is not always clearly either normal or abnormal.

What should be considered when deciding whether behaviour is typical or atypical?

The individual's usual behaviour, relevant social and cultural context, developmental stage and the available psychological criteria should be considered.

Cultural norms

Shared expectations within a culture about appropriate behaviour, thoughts and emotions.

How can cultural norms be used to assess typicality?

Behaviour may be considered typical if it is consistent with the cultural norms of the relevant culture and atypical if it significantly deviates from them.

Why are cultural norms limited when assessing typicality?

Behavioural norms differ significantly between cultures, so behaviour should not be classified as atypical simply because it differs from the norms of another culture.

Social norms

Unwritten social rules and expectations that govern how an individual is expected to behave within a community or social group.

How can social norms be used to assess typicality?

Behaviour may be considered atypical when it significantly deviates from the social expectations of the relevant community or social group.

Why are social norms limited when assessing typicality?

Social norms differ between social settings and may not account for factors that affect an individual's ability to interpret or respond to social stimuli.

Statistical rarity

The extent to which a behaviour occurs infrequently within a relevant population.

How can statistical rarity be used to assess typicality?

A behaviour may be considered atypical if it is sufficiently rare compared with a relevant population and unusual enough to be considered significant.

Why is statistical rarity limited as a criterion for typicality?

Relevant statistics may not be available, and a rare behaviour is not necessarily harmful, distressing or inappropriate.

Personal distress

The degree to which an individual's thoughts, emotions or behaviour cause significant distress to the individual.

How can personal distress be used to assess typicality?

Behaviour may be considered atypical when it causes significant or persistent distress to the individual.

Why is personal distress limited as a criterion for typicality?

There may be no indication of distress or no baseline for comparison, and individuals differ in their ability to regulate or communicate distress.

Adaptive behaviour

Behaviour that allows an individual to effectively function in their day-to-day life and competently meet the challenges they face.

Maladaptive behaviour

Behaviour that does not allow an individual to effectively function or competently meet the challenges they face.

How can maladaptive behaviour be used to assess typicality?

Behaviour may be considered atypical when it is significantly less adaptive than would normally be expected for that individual.

Why is maladaptive behaviour limited as a criterion for typicality?

Factors that limit an individual's ability to choose or change their behaviour may not be considered.

What is the difference between adaptive and maladaptive behaviour?

Adaptive behaviour helps an individual function effectively and meet challenges competently, whereas maladaptive behaviour interferes with their ability to function effectively or meet challenges.

Can atypical behaviour be adaptive?

Yes. A behaviour can differ from what is typical while still helping the individual function effectively or manage challenges.

Can typical behaviour be maladaptive?

Yes. A behaviour can be consistent with what is usual or common while still interfering with effective functioning.

What is the difference between atypical and maladaptive?

Atypical refers to being significantly different from what is typical or appropriate, while maladaptive refers to being ineffective in helping an individual function or meet challenges.

How should you answer an adaptive versus maladaptive question?

Define adaptive behaviour, define maladaptive behaviour, identify which applies to the behaviour, and explain how the behaviour affects the individual's ability to function or meet challenges.

What does it mean if behaviour is typical for an individual?

It means the behaviour is consistent with how that individual usually behaves, regardless of whether it appears unusual compared with other people.

Why might a behaviour be typical for an individual but atypical compared with the general population?

The behaviour may be consistent with the individual's usual way of functioning even though it differs from the behaviour displayed by most people.

Why should typicality not automatically be judged by the general population?

Typicality is circumstantial and should consider how the individual usually behaves as well as relevant developmental, cultural and social contexts.

Neurotypicality

Neurological development and functioning that is broadly consistent with what is considered typical within the general population.

Neurodiversity

The concept that there is natural variation in human neurological development and cognitive functioning.

Neurodivergence

A term used to describe neurological development or functioning that differs from what is considered neurotypical.

How are neurotypicality and neurodiversity different?

Neurotypicality describes functioning broadly consistent with the population norm, whereas neurodiversity recognises variation in neurological development and functioning across individuals.

How does neurodiversity relate to normality?

Neurodiversity recognises that differences from neurotypical functioning can be natural variations in human development rather than automatically being abnormal or inferior.

Does neurodivergence automatically mean a person is abnormal?

No. Neurodivergence describes a difference from neurotypical functioning and does not by itself determine whether behaviour is harmful, distressing or maladaptive.

Does neurodivergence automatically mean behaviour is maladaptive?

No. A neurodivergent characteristic may create challenges but can also be adaptive or associated with strengths depending on the individual and context.

ADHD

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, a neurodevelopmental disorder involving persistent patterns of difficulties such as inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity that can affect functioning.

Autism spectrum disorder

A neurodevelopmental condition involving differences in social communication and interaction and restricted or repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests or activities, which may include differences in sensory processing.

Neurodevelopmental disorder

A condition involving differences in neurological development that can affect psychological functioning, behaviour or development.

Sensory overload

A state in which sensory input becomes overwhelming for an individual to process or manage.

How can sensory differences relate to autism?

Autistic individuals may experience sensory input differently and may become overwhelmed by sensory experiences that others may find manageable.

How can sensory overload influence behaviour?

Sensory overload may lead an individual to avoid, withdraw from or limit exposure to situations that produce overwhelming sensory input.

How can avoidance behaviour be typical for a neurodivergent individual?

If the avoidance is consistent with how the individual usually responds to their neurological characteristics, it may be considered typical for that individual.

How can avoidance behaviour still be maladaptive?

Even if avoidance is typical for the individual, it may be maladaptive if it prevents them from functioning effectively or meeting challenges.

Why is it important to distinguish typicality from adaptiveness when discussing neurodiversity?

A behaviour can be typical for a neurodivergent individual while still being maladaptive, or atypical while still being adaptive.

Critical period

A period in psychological development during which a particular skill or ability needs to be acquired for normal development; after this period has passed, acquisition is unlikely.

Sensitive period

A period in psychological development during which acquisition of a particular skill or ability is optimal, although it can still be acquired after the period has passed, generally less efficiently.

Key difference between a critical and sensitive period

A critical period is a time when a skill needs to be acquired if it is to develop normally, whereas a sensitive period is the optimal time for acquisition but the skill can still be learned later.

Does second-language learning require a critical period?

No. A second language does not need to be learned during a critical period for it to be acquired successfully.

Does musical instrument learning require a critical period?

No. Learning to play a musical instrument does not require a critical period for success.

When is second-language learning most efficient?

Learning a second language is generally most efficient when it occurs during the relevant sensitive period.

When is musical instrument learning most efficient?

Learning a musical instrument is generally more efficient when it occurs during the relevant sensitive period.

Why might someone who learns a skill during a sensitive period outperform someone who learns it later?

The sensitive period is the optimal period for acquisition, so learning during it is generally more efficient than learning after it has passed.

How should you answer a critical versus sensitive period application question?

Define both periods, establish whether the skill requires a critical period, identify whether it can be learned during a sensitive period, and compare the efficiency of learning at different ages.

Cognitive development

Changes in thinking, reasoning, memory, problem-solving and other cognitive abilities across development.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

A theory proposing that children's cognitive abilities develop through a sequence of qualitatively different stages as they interact with their environment.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's stage from birth to approximately 2 years, in which infants primarily understand the world through sensory experiences and physical actions.

Preoperational stage

Piaget's stage from approximately 2 to 7 years, characterised by symbolic thinking but limitations such as egocentrism, centration and difficulty with conservation.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's stage from approximately 7 to 11 years, characterised by logical thinking about concrete objects and events and abilities such as conservation and classification.