AP 1 Chapter 1

Levels of Organization

Chemical > Cellular > Tissue > Organ > Organ Systems > Organism

Anatomy

Describe structure of body in terms of location, what it is made of, and associated strutures

Physiology

Study of function of body structures whether its individual or collective

Divisions of Human Anatomy

1.Gross Anatomy

2.Microscopic Anatomy

Gross Anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Examples of Gross Anatomy

1.Surface Anatomy: Exterior features

2.Regional Anatomy: specific body areas

3.Sectional Anatomy: cross sections things seen through scans

4.Systemic Anatomy: organ systems

5.Clinical Anatomy: Medical specialties

6.Developmental Anatomy: from conception to adulthood including embryology (not focus as much)

Types of Clinical Anatomy

1. pathological anatomy:study of diseases and how they affect organs

2. radio-graphic anatomy: using scans

3. surgical anatomy

Microscopic Anatomy

Anatomy to examine cells and molecules and can only be seen through microscope

Type of Microscopic Anatomy

1. Cytology: Study of cells

2. Histology: Study of Tissues

Types of Physiology

1.cell physiology: function of cells

2.organ physiology: function of specific organs

3.systemic physiology: function of organ systems such as how they work together

4.Pathological physiology: how diseases affect organ and organ systems

Type of Systemic Physiology

1.Neurophysiology

2.Endocrinology

3.cardiovascular physiology

4.immunology

5.respiratory physiology

6.renal physiology

7.digestive physiology  

etc…

Chemical Level

1. Atoms: smallest stable units of matter

2. Molecules: consist of groups of atoms

cellular level

cells are the smallest living units in body

Tissue level

groups of similar cells that have a common function. a group of cells working together

Types of tissues

1. Epithelium

2. Connective

3. Muscle

4. Nervous

Organ Level

organs are made up of two or more tissues working together

most have all four tissues working together

organ system level

A group of organs working together. Humans have 11 organ systems

organism level

an individual life form

Organ systems of the body

1. Integumentary

2. Skeletal

3. Muscular

4. Nervous

5. Endocrine

6. Cardiovascular

7. Lymphatic

8. Respiratory

9. Digestive

10. Urinary

11. Reproductive (male/female)

Integumentary system

major organs: skin, hair, sweat glands, nails

functions: protects against environmental hazards, helps regulate body temperature, provides sensory information

skeletal system

major organs: bones, cartilages, associated ligaments, bone marrow

functions: provides support and protection for other tissues, stores calcium and other minerals, forms blood cells

Muscular System

major organs: skeletal muscles and associated tendons

functions: provides movement, provides protection and support for other tissues, generates heat that maintains body temperature

nervous system

major organs: brain and spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs

functions: directs immediate responses to stimuli, coordinates or moderates other organ systems, provides and interprets sensory information

endocrine system

major organs:

pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands

pancreas and gonads

endocrine tissues in other systems

functions: directs long-term changes in other organ systems adjusts metabolic activity and energy use controls many structural and functional changes during development

cardiovascular system

Major organs: heart, blood, blood vessels

Functions: distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials, including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide - distributes heat and assists in the control of body temperature

lymphatic system

major organs: spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils

functions: defends against infection and disease, returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

respiratory system

major organs: nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli

functions: delivers air to alveoli (sites in lung where gas exchange occurs), provides oxygen to bloodstream, removes carbon dioxide from blood stream, produce sounds for communication

digestive system

major organs: teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

functions: processes and digests food, absorbs and conserves water, absorbs nutrients, stores energy reserves

urinary system

major organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

functions: excretes waste products from the blood, controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced, stores urine prior to voluntary elimination, regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

male reproductive system

major organs: testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, scrotum

functions: produces male sex cells (sperm) and hormones, sexual intercourse

female reproductive system

Major Organs: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands

Functions:

produces female sex cells (oocytes) & hormones, supports developing embryo from conception to delivery, provides milk to nourish newborn infant, sexual intercourse

Basic life processes

1. Metabolism

2. Responsiveness

3. Movement

4. Growth

5. Differentiation

6. Reproduction

Metabolism

the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body including catabolism and anabolism

Catabolism

breaking down

Anabolism

the building up of body cells and substances from nutrients

Responsiveness

the ability to detect and respond to changes in the external or internal environment

Movement

includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even organelles inside cells

Growth

refers to an increase in size and complexity, due to an increase in the number of cells, sizes of cells, or both

Differentiation

the change in a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state

Reproduction

refers either to the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual

Body Fluids and Types of body Fluids

For cells in body to survive, they need water, and fluid must be precisely maintained all time.

Types:

1.Intracellular Fluid : Fluid inside body cells

2.Extracellular Fluid : Fluid outside body cells

Interstitial Fluid

fluid between cells

Locations of Extracellular Fluid

1.Plasma: in Blood Vessels

2.Lymph: in lymphatic vessels

3.cerebral spinal fluid: in and around brain and spinal cord

4.synovial fluid: in the joints

5.vitreous humor: within the eyes

Homeostasis

Process in which the body work together to maintain a stable internal environment. Systems respond to external and internal changes to maintain the normal range. Not being about to respond well enough may signify disease/sickness.

Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium (meaning opposing forces are in balance). Our body is constantly on dynamic equilibrium meaning constant adapting to maintain balance.

Failure to maintain homeostasis results in diseases.

Homeostatic Regulation

the adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis

Two types of homeostatic regulation

1. Autoregulation: automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to an environmental change.

2. Extrinsic Regulation: Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems

Nervous System = sends electronic signals known as action potentials

Endocrine System = sends signals by chemical messengers known as hormones

Mechanism of Extrinsic Regulation

1. Receptor = Receives stimulus

2. Control Center = Process Signals and sends instructions

3. Effector = Carries out the instructions

These mechanism limits fluctuations of internal conditions to keep them to a set/close desired value.

Types of Effector Responses

1. Negative Feedback: Response of effector negates the stimulus and body is brought back to normal range

2. Positive Feedback: The initial stimulus produces a response that further amplifies the original change in conditions. The body is moved further away from homeostasis (meaning normal range is getting further away). Used to speed up processes.

Example of Positive feedback

Childbirth: The cervix would expand and the positive feedback, it need to send out more signals to expand more and more.

Cuts: When you have a cut, the body sends response to repair the wound and cover the wound with platelets. It will keep triggers response until wound is covered.

Anatomical Position

Standardize position in which we describe directional terms:

1. Standing upright

2. Facing the observer, head level

3. Eyes facing forward

4. Feet flat on the floor

5. Arms at the sides

6. Palms turned forward

Prone

Lying Face down position

Supine

Lying face up position

Superior

AKA Cranial

Above at a higher levels towards the head

Inferior

AKA Caudal

Below at a lower level away from the head

Anterior

AKA Ventral

At the front of the body

Posterior

AKA Dorsal

At the back of the body

Medial

Towards the midline of the body

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body

Intermediate

between a medial and lateral structure

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment of limb to the trunk

Distal

farther from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk

superficial

closer to the surface of the body

deep

away from the surface of the body

Ipsilateral

on the same side of the body

Contralateral

on the opposite side of the body

Parietal

pertaining to the outer wall of the body cavity

Visceral

pertaining to the internal organs

Frontal

Forehead

Cephalic

Head

Cranial

Skull

Facial

Face

Ocular

Eye

Orbital

Eye

Otic

Ear

Nasal

Nose

Oral

Mouth

Buccal

Cheek

Mental

Chin

Acromial

High point of shoulder

Axillary

Armpit

Brachial

Arm

Antebrachial

Forearm

Antecubital

Front of Elbow

Olecranon

Back of Elbow

Manual

Hand

Manus

Hand

Carpal

Wrist

Palmar

Palm

Pollex

Thumb

Digital (upper)

Fingers

Phalangeal (upper)

Fingers

Gluteal

Buttock

Inguinal

Groin

Femoral

Thigh

Patellar

Front of Knee

Popliteal

Back of Knee

Crural

Front of leg (shin)

Sural

Back of leg (Calf)

Pedal

Foot

Tarsal

Ankle