British Attitudes in the Metropole towards Empire

Working Class Curriculum

• The utilitarian curriculum for working-class children in the 1850s included sewing, and woodwork, with a deliberate avoidance of discussing empire.

  • In the 1850s 50% of working-class people attended school but the average length of attendance was 3 years.

Literacy Rate

The literacy rate among the working class increased from 60% in 1840 to 77.5% in 1870, thanks to the 1870 Education Act and efforts to improve education.

Penny Dreadfuls

• The most popular form of illustrated literature for working-class men in the 1860s and 1870s, these cheap wood pulp publications focused on detectives, criminals, and supernatural themes, rather than imperial themes.

Jingoism

Jingoistic songs and performances in music halls, such as G. W. Hunt's "By Jingo," began to appear in the late 19th century, celebrating British soldiers and promoting imperial propaganda.

Working-Class Diet

The working-class diet primarily consisted of bread, seasonal vegetables, potatoes, oats, and lentils, with tea from China and India being the only significant impact of empire on their diet.

Third Reform Act

The Third Reform Act of 1884 expanded the electorate to 5.5 million working-class men, forcing the elites to court their votes and promote pro-imperial policies.

Boys Own Paper

• First published in 1879, this magazine featured stories of soldiery and bravery across the British Empire, reinforcing imperial values among young boys.

British Empire Exhibition

Held in 1924 and 1925, this exhibition showcased the wealth and achievements of the British Empire, attracting 27 million visitors total in 11 months of running of visitors and promoting imperial pride.

Empire Day

Starting from 1916, school children celebrated Empire Day annually on May 24th, saluting the Union Flag and learning about imperial heroes, although the real highlight for them was getting to leave school early.

Racist Attitudes

• 1958 rise of the Teddy Boys sparking violent riots in St Ann’s and Nottingham.

• by 1962, 90% of the population supported legislation to curb immigration and 80% felt that there were too many immigrants

• 70% public support for the 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act

• North London Survey found that 50% wouldn’t live next door to a ‘colored person’ and 90% disapproved of interracial marriages.

Jingoistic works

• G.W Hunt’s ‘By Jingo’ 1878 popularised the term jingoism.

• Works by Rudyard Kipling and Haggard that emphasized Britain's right to rule their colonies e.g. ‘The White Man’s burden’ (1899)

Imperialist literature

Popular works such as 'King Solomon's Mines' and 'She' that were favored by the middle and upper classes.

Imperialist children's literature

Novels by G.A. Henty focused on imperial themes, including 'With Clive in India' and 'The Dash for Khartoum'.

Majority of popular literature

The majority of adult literature and theater productions made no mention of Empire.

Boy Scout movement

Baden-Powell's Boy Scout movement with an overtly imperial agenda, popular among middle-class boys.

Critiques of capitalist imperialism

J.A. Hobson's view that imperialism was a capitalist plot designed to benefit a small elite.

Welfare campaigner

Emily Hobhouse, who sparked a government inquiry into the conditions of British concentration camps during the Boer War.

Anti-imperialism proponents

Figures such as Blunt, Spencer, Harrison, Digby, and Crane who championed anti-imperialist views.

Middle class support for Liberal opposition

The middle class siding with the Liberal opposition during the Khaki Election of 1900.

Church's role in spreading imperialist values

The Church played a vital role in spreading imperialist values to the middle classes.

Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee

Middle-class women were reminded of their reliance on the Empire's control of the diamond fields of South Africa for affordable diamond jewelry.

British Empire Exhibition

Attracted millions of middle-class families and showcased the achievements of the Empire.

Cinema as a medium for imperialism

Films like 'Sanders of the River' and 'The Four Feathers' portrayed Empire as a place of adventure and excitement.

Imperial themes in advertising

Large traders used imperial themes to advertise their products, such as collectible cards illustrating places in the Empire with each packet of tea.

Middle-class diets and immigration

Rationing stunted the growth in variety of middle-class diets until 1954, when mass immigration led to a rise in the popularity and range of foreign cuisines available.

Migration to the dominions

Approximately 1 million people migrated from Britain to the dominions between 1946 and 1957, benefiting the lives of the middle classes.

Post-war imperialism in film and television

Films like 'North West Frontier' and 'Guns at Batasi' continued to push pro-imperial themes, while satirical comedy programs like 'That Was the Week, That Was' mocked traditional imperial attitudes.

Upper-class thinkers and their views on imperialism

The upper classes viewed Europeans, Britons, or the English as a superior race to those they colonized.

Upper-class consumption of Empire goods

The upper classes benefited from goods and resources procured from the Empire, such as beaver fur hats, Worcester sauce, and tea.

Upper-class promotion of imperialism

Individuals like Joseph Chamberlain and Cecil Rhodes actively promoted imperialism in various ways.

Upper-class ownership of press and children's literature

The upper classes owned popular press and children's literature, using them as means of spreading imperialist propaganda.

Empire Day and British Empire Exhibition

Upper-class organized events like Empire Day and the British Empire Exhibition were designed to promote and justify the advantages of Empire.

Upper-class culture and imperial nostalgia

Imperial nostalgia remained an important part of upper-class culture, as seen in the retention of Imperial Royal honors and patriotic British music performances.

Economic trends in the era of free trade

British exports and imports with the Empire, the City of London as the world's financial capital, and the reliance on colonies for food and raw materials.

Economic trends in the era of new imperialism

British overseas investment focused on non-Imperial ventures, and trade with the Empire declined.

British Trade Deficit

The imbalance between Britain's imports and exports, particularly with North America and Europe, which the Empire helped to alleviate.

Economic Contribution of Less Developed Colonies

The newly acquired and less economically developed colonies played a significant role in balancing British trade, with increased imports and exports from tropical and Southern Africa and Asia.

Empire's Impact on British Exports

The Empire accounted for a growing percentage of Britain's total exports, reaching 35% by 1914, with India alone contributing about 20% of exports.

Empire's Limited Effect on Economic Decline

Despite the Empire's contribution to balancing trade, Britain's export trade grew at a slower rate compared to Germany and the Netherlands, indicating that the Empire was not enough to prevent Britain's global economic decline.

Chartered Companies

The use of chartered companies, such as the North Borneo Trading Company and the Royal Niger Company, helped exploit resources in the Empire, including coal, iron, copper, palm oil, rubber, and cocoa.

Imperial Federation League

The Imperial Federation League, founded in 1884, aimed to promote colonial unity but disbanded in 1893, reflecting a declining interest in the Empire's commercial importance.

Empire's Role in British Food Supply

The Empire supplied a significant portion of Britain's beef and wheat flour, but only a small percentage of other food needs, such as cheese, apples, potatoes, and fresh mutton.

Cost of Empire to Middle Class Britons

Anti-imperialists argued that the Empire imposed higher taxes on middle-class Britons for imperial defense, leading to a higher defense expenditure compared to other developed nations.

Impact of Cheap Food Imports

Anti-imperialists claimed that cheap food imports undermined British farming and depressed wages due to cheap foreign labor in the colonies, although some historians dispute this claim.

Economic Consequences of World War 1

World War 1 resulted in significant economic costs for Britain, including becoming a debtor nation, losing gold reserves, losing export market dominance, and facing challenges in core industries.

Economic Challenges in the Inter-War Period

The inter-war period saw struggles in Britain's finance and banking sector, a financial crisis in 1931, reduced earnings from overseas investments, and a shift towards greater reliance on the Empire due to limited international opportunities.

Imperial Preference and Ottawa Conference

The Ottawa Conference of 1932 introduced imperial preference, with a tax on non-Empire imports and preferential treatment for British and Dominion exports, highlighting the importance of imperial markets.

Empire's Role in British Imports and Exports

The Empire's share of British imports and exports increased over time, particularly in sectors like wheat and cocoa, but the value of these exports decreased, indicating a partial alleviation of Britain's economic decline.

Commonwealth's Importance in Post-War Reconstruction

The Commonwealth became crucial for British investors, providing essential imports of food and raw materials, and serving as a market for British exports, aiding in the repayment of war debts.

MacMillan's Recognition of Decolonization

In 1957, MacMillan acknowledged the economic costs of maintaining the Empire, leading to the recognition that decolonization would be economically advantageous for Britain.

Shift from Commonwealth to European Economic Community (EEC)

Britain's decision to prioritize trade with the Commonwealth over joining the EEC in 1957 eventually shifted towards a European future, reducing the importance of Commonwealth trade for Britain's economic future.