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Q: What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to occur, while those followed by discomforting consequences are less likely to occur.
Q: What does "in that situation" mean in the Law of Effect?
A: Reinforcement or punishment influences behavior only in the context where it occurs.
Q: Why did Thorndike later revise his law?
A: He found that discomforting consequences (punishment) do not always decrease behavior consistently.
Q: How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?
A: Operant conditioning focuses on consequences shaping voluntary behavior, while classical conditioning involves associating stimuli with involuntary responses.
Q: Give an everyday example of the Law of Effect.
A: A child gets praised for cleaning their room → more likely to clean again.
A student gets scolded for using their phone in class → less likely to use it again.
Q: What is operant conditioning?
A: Learning where the frequency of a behavior depends on its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).
Q: What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?
A:
Reinforcement: Increases behavior
Punishment: Decreases behavior
Q: What is the difference between positive and negative in operant conditioning?
A:
Positive: Adding a stimulus
Negative: Removing a stimulus
Q: What are primary and secondary reinforcers?
A:
Primary reinforcers: Naturally rewarding (food, water, sex, pain relief).
Secondary reinforcers: Learned associations (money, praise, attention).
Q: What is shaping in operant conditioning?
A: Reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior to gradually teach a new response.
Q: What is chaining in operant conditioning?
A: Training a sequence of behaviors so each response serves as a cue for the next.
Ex:For instance, in dog training, teaching a dog to perform a series of actions like sit, shake, and roll over. Each action (like sitting) acts as a cue for the next (shaking), and so on, until the full sequence is completed.
Q: How did Skinner view personality?
A: He believed all behavior is learned through operant and classical conditioning—no free will, just reinforcement histories.
Q: Give an example of accidental reinforcement shaping personality.
A: A child gets attention (a reinforcer) every time they act out, leading to more misbehavior over time.
Q: What is an example of secondary reinforcement in social settings?
A: Smiles, compliments, and approval act as reinforcers that shape behavior and social interactions.
Q: What did Skinner believe about behavior?
A: Behavior should be observable and measurable—only what can be objectively studied matters.
Q: How did Skinner become interested in psychology?
A: While wandering around Europe, he read Pavlov and Watson’s work, which inspired him to study psychology.
Q: What was Skinner’s stance on scientific study?
A: Like Watson, he emphasized objective measurement—psychology should only study what can be observed.
Q: What was Skinner’s main contribution to psychology?
A: Developing the theory of operant conditioning, focusing on how rewards and punishments shape behavior.
Q: Why did Skinner criticize inner explanations (thoughts and feelings) of behavior?
A: They are difficult to observe and verify, making them scientifically unreliable.
Q: What historical example did Skinner use to show flawed internal explanations?
A: Phlogiston theory, which falsely explained combustion as caused by an inner substance.
Q: Why is it problematic to attribute behavior to an "inner agent"?
A: Inner causes cannot be disproven, making them unscientific and unverifiable.
Q: What was Skinner’s alternative to inner explanations?
A: He believed behavior is shaped by reinforcement and observable environmental factors.
Q: What are the four key principles of Skinner’s view on behavior?
A: Behavior is observable, lawful, externally controlled, and manipulable.
Q: What does lawful behavior mean in Skinner’s theory?
A: Behavior follows consistent patterns under given conditions, similar to natural laws.
Ex:a rat will press a lever when it learns that doing so leads to food, showing that its behavior is shaped by environmental factors in a consistent way.
Q: How did Skinner justify applying animal behavior laws to humans?
A: Humans are made of the same biological material, and controlled environments show predictable behavior.
Q: What was Skinner’s response to the free will argument?
A: He believed free will is an illusion, and behavior is shaped by environmental consequences.
Q: How did Skinner’s clinical student respond to a father doubting behaviorism?
A: She asked, "How about gravity? How’s that working for him?"—implying behavior follows laws like physics.
Q: What is the difference between universal and probabilistic laws?
A: Universal laws apply without exception (e.g., gravity,broad application), while probabilistic laws predict likelihood (e.g., behavior increasing with praise).
Q: Why is operant conditioning considered a probabilistic law?
A: Because behavior change depends on multiple factors, and reinforcement doesn’t guarantee a response every time.
rewards and reinforcement
Q: What phrase signals a probabilistic law in behaviorism?
A: "Are likely to…" – indicating that outcomes depend on other influences.
Q: Can classical and operant conditioning be considered universal?
A: They are universally applicable but still probabilistic in nature.
Yes, both classical and operant conditioning can be considered universal because they apply to many types of learning across species and situations.
However, they are still probabilistic in nature, meaning that they make certain behaviors more likely, but don't guarantee that a behavior will always occur.
Q: What is the sequence of Skinner’s personality mechanism?
A: Behavior (Bx) → Environmental Consequence (Ec) → Behavior Change
Q: What was Skinner’s stance on the role of the nervous system in behavior?
A: Skinner believed the nervous system plays a role in behavior, but focused on external factors like stimuli and reinforcement.
Ex: He studied how a rat learns to press a lever for food, emphasizing environmental influences rather than delving into the brain's mechanisms.
Q: Why did Skinner de-emphasize biological influences on behavior?
A: Because biology cannot be controlled, while environmental factors can be manipulated to shape behavior.
Q: How did Skinner view cognition in behavior?
A: He saw internal thoughts as irrelevant and argued that behavior can be understood without inferring mental processes.
Q: What was Skinner’s perspective on verifiability in psychology?
A: He believed that only observable and measurable behavior should be studied to maintain scientific credibility.
Q: What was Skinner’s vision for society based on behavioral principles?
A: He imagined a society shaped by behavioral conditioning, as described in his novel Walden II.
Skinner envisioned a society shaped by behavioral conditioning, where positive reinforcement and controlled environments would encourage desirable behaviors. This idea is explored in his novel Walden Two, where he presents a utopian community that uses these principles to promote harmony and efficiency.
Q: Why do unique patterns of behavior (personality) exist?
A: Due to variability in consequence histories—patterns of consequences create patterns in behavior.
Unique patterns of behavior, or personality, exist because each person has different consequence histories. The experiences and rewards or punishments they encounter throughout life shape their behaviors in distinct ways, leading to individual differences in personality.
Q: What role do previously established stimulus-response relationships play in personality?
A: They shape behavior alongside new consequences, reinforcing consistent behavioral tendencies over time.
Q: How does reinforcement contribute to personality development?
A: Repeated reinforcement of behaviors leads to consistent behavioral patterns, which become personality traits.
Q: What influences the reinforcement patterns that shape personality?
A: Socializing agents (e.g., parents, teachers) transmit patterned consequences, reinforcing specific behaviors based on their own values.
Ex: if parents praise a child for being polite, the child will likely keep being polite.
Similarly, teachers rewarding good grades can lead to a focus on academics. These patterns from socializing agents help shape a person’s personality.
Q: How do social values influence personality development?
A: The values of socializing agents shape how they apply reinforcement, influencing which behaviors are encouraged or discouraged.
Q: What is the key takeaway from behaviorism’s view of personality development?
A: Personality is shaped by environmental reinforcement patterns, not innate traits.
For example, a child’s behavior might be shaped by rewards or punishments they receive from their parents or teachers, leading to the development of their personality.
Q: What does sociability refer to in behaviorism?
A: The frequency and degree of engaging in verbal exchanges across different situations.
Q: What determines an individual’s sociability?
A: Their consequence history—patterns of reinforcement and punishment that shape social behavior.
Q: What is A-B-C in behaviorism?
A: Antecedent → Behavior → Consequence—used to analyze how behaviors are reinforced or discouraged.
For example, if a child gets praise (consequence) for cleaning their room (behavior) after being reminded (antecedent: something that happens before behavior), the behavior is likely to be repeated.
Q: What is functional analysis in behaviorism?
A: A method to identify specific reinforcement and punishment patterns that shape a person’s behavior.
Q: How can sociability be both reinforced and punished?
A: A child may be praised for talking at home (reinforcement) but scolded for talking too much at school (punishment).
Q: How does behaviorism explain personality differences in sociability?
A: Personality traits emerge from complex reinforcement and punishment histories, not innate factors.
Ex: a person becomes more sociable or less sociable based on the rewards and consequences they receive in social situations, rather than any innate or genetic factors.
Q: Who is Karen Pryor, and what is she known for?
A: A scientist, author, and animal trainer who pioneered positive reinforcement training and wrote Don’t Shoot the Dog(1984).
Q: What did Karen Pryor contribute to behaviorism?
A: She applied Skinner’s operant conditioning principles to train marine mammals, later expanding to other animals and humans.
Q: What is clicker training?
A: A positive reinforcement technique that pairs a neutral stimulus (clicker sound) with a reward to shape behavior.
Q: How does clicker training work?
A: The clicker sound is paired with a reward, reinforcing behaviors without force or punishment.
Ex:The clicker sound (an antecedent) is paired with a reward, like food (consequence), to reinforce a behavior (e.g., sitting or performing a trick).
Q: How has clicker training influenced other fields?
A: It’s used for training animals humanely, teaching autistic children, improving athletic performance, and modifying human behavior.
Q: What was the impact of Karen Pryor’s work?
A: She revolutionized animal training, making it more humane, and influenced teaching, therapy, and sports coaching using positive reinforcement.
Q: What is the goal of operant conditioning research?
A: To modify behavior by manipulating the environment and eliminating undetermined influences.
Q: How did Skinner’s experimental approach impact pharmacology?
A: It provided a controlled way to study drug effects by measuring behavioral changes in animals.
Q: What is a token economy?
A: A system where individuals earn tokens for desired behaviors, which can be exchanged for rewards.
Q: Who developed the first token economy, and where was it used?
A: Ayllon & Azrin in a hospital setting to encourage adaptive behavior in patients with psychosis.
Q: What is behavior therapy, and how does it work?
A: A therapeutic approach that modifies maladaptive behaviors by reinforcing positive behaviors and eliminating reinforcements for problem behaviors.
Ex: a therapist might reward a child for completing homework to encourage good study habits.
Q: How is applied behavior analysis (ABA) used in therapy?
A: ABA is used to correct behavioral deficits, especially in individuals with autism and developmental disorders.
For example, ABA might help a child with autism learn to communicate or follow instructions by reinforcing desired behaviors and reducing undesirable ones.
Q: What is parent training, and why is it effective?
A: A method that teaches parents to reinforce good behavior and avoid inadvertently rewarding bad behavior in children.
Ex: parents might reward a child for sharing but avoid giving attention to tantrums.
Q: How is operant conditioning used in schools and workplaces?
A: Through behavior modification programs, reward systems, and structured reinforcement strategies to shape desired behaviors.
