Social Psychology Midterm
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114 Terms
Social Psychology
the scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.
wrote the study on how cyclists cycle faster when others are present
norman tripplet
social psychology became a hot topic of reserach after…
world war 2
Floyd allport
was a prominent figure in social psychology who contributed to the understanding of social behaviors and group dynamics.
Three features of the self
the body
social identity
the self is an active agent
self consists of the
known (what I know about myself) and the knower(what we know about ourselves)
Functions of selfhood
self is an interpersonal tool
self makes choices
self regulation
self knowledge is obtained from others but….
heavily filtered through biases from others
Self knowledge comes from
feedback off others
self comparison
Gesalt Psychology
images are perceived as a whole rather than a portion
positive psychology
focuses on the resilience of individuals rather than the disfunction
social perception
how we perceive others s
self perception
how we view ourselves
self fulfilling prophecy
a prediction that influences a person's behavior and leads to the fulfillment of that prediction, whether for positive or negative outcomes
hindsight bias
tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they were
Those who believe it is possible to understand the self
autobiographical writers: self-concept is the most complete form of knowledge
Those who believe it is not possible to understand the self
psychoanalysts: self concept is very hard to obtain
Introspection
the process of looking inward and examining our thoughts and feelings
limitations to introspection.
people do not often engage in introspection
reasons for some behaviours are hidden from our conscious awareness
Healthy self knowledge includes:
exaggerating positive self-evaluation
exaggerating perception of control
having unrealistic optimism
a certain amount of systematic distortions of the self are needed for…
proper functioning in society
self esteem is rooted in:
social feedback
direct experience of efficacy
Downward comparison
increasing self-esteem by believing that one is better than someone else
Upward comaprison
increasing self-esteem by being inspired by someone
Impression management strategies
strategies that help individuals control information to project a desired image,
self-handicapping
a strategy where individuals create obstacles to their own success
Claimed handicapping
a self handicap in which an individual claims an obstacle interfered with their success
behavioral handicapping
a self handicap in which an individual actively creates an obstacle which interferes with their success
false consensus effect
a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate how much others agree with them
people apart of this culture are more likely to display self effacement
collectivist culture
self effacement
the quality of not claiming attention for oneself. (humble off)
Culture is comprised of:
the human made part of the enviornment
the social institutions of the society (norms, rules, and laws)
Ecology
how physical environment shapes culture
Independent self
self is autonomous and self contained identity
gives rise to self-actualization
uniqueness is praised inte
interdependent self
self is connected to others and is part of social relationships
gives rise to fulfilling and creating obligation
responsive to others and the social enviornment
3 aspects of self
private
public
collective
individualistic culture
high value on peoples need for privacy, freedom, and individual accomplishment
Collectivist cultures
emphasis on maintaining harmony among group members and suppressing emotions that disrupt the group
Kelley’s mode of covariation
theory that explains how individuals determine whether a person's behaviour is caused by internal traits (dispositional) or external circumstances (situational) by examining three types of information: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency
Consensus
Does the behavior occur across many people in the same situation?High —— means many people behave this way; low ——— means few others do
Distinctiveness
How unique is this behavior in this specific situation compared to other situations? High _______ suggests the behavior is unusual for the person; low ______ means the behavior is common for the person across various situations.
Consistency
How often does the person exhibit this behavior across time in this exact situation? High _____ means the behavior happens repeatedly in the same situation; low ______indicates the behavior is not frequent.
Naive psychology
the everyday reasoning people use to understand others' actions and how individuals use a kind of naïve or common-sense psychology to explain the behavior of others
Wiener’s attribution theory
suggests that an individual's willingness to engage in information seeking in a current situation is dependent on how the person attributes the causes of past success or failure of information seeking efforts
ecological fallacy
the assumption that group charcteristics apply to all individual members of a group
self presentation
how people work to convey certain images of themselves to others
social perception
how people form impressions of and make inferences about other people and events in the social world
social influence
the impact of other peoples attitudes and behaviours on our thoughts, beliefs, and feelings
social cognitive perspective
how we think about ourselves in the social world and how we make judgements and decisions in this world
social constructionism
the view that there is no absolute reality and that our knowledge and what we understand to be reality are socially constructed
attributions
a cognitive process by which people explain causes of events and behaviours
discounting principle
the observer should not conclude that a person always has a unique disposition to behave when the person does exactly what the situation pushes them to do
pro castro study:
study on the discounting principle
people believed that individuals were pro-Castro even when told the essayist was not given a choice to write a pro-castor essay
shows that we do not always reason logically
correspondence error or fundamental attribution error
a tendency to correspond a person’s behaviour or personal disposition to a behaviour when the behaviour can be attributed to the situation
correspondence bias creates a tendency to…
underestimate situational power
the two dimensions of attribution:
locus of control
stability of the cause
3 bases of attitudes
affect
behavioural intention
cognition
Affect as a base of attitude
emotions stimulated by objects of an attitude
behavioural intention as a base for attitudes
predisposition to a certain way
cognition as a base for attitudes
beliefs or ideas people have about object of an attitude
3 major determinants of attitude
ambivalence
accessibility
subjective experience
ambivalence
mixed feelings on an attitude (more _____ = weaker view)
accessibility
access to information about view (more _____ = stronger view)
explicit attitudes
outwardly expressed attitudes
implicit attitudes
behaviour that suggests an attitude
Convey’s (1937) cheating study
people will say they are against cheating but when given a chance to do so
shows how behaviours and attitudes are not always consistent
La Piere’s 1934 field study
people were more prejudice in their reports (reported they would not serve an Asian couple but when an asian couple came in asking for help they were likely to serve them.)
shows how behaviours and attitudes are not always consistent
Attitudes and behaviour have to be measured….
at the same level of specificity
David and Jaccard study on birth control
attitudes on birth control increased correlation when the wording was more specific
cognitive dissonance theory
inconsistency among attitudes leads to tension which motivates people in the direction of an attitude change
To reduce dissonance
change one of the cognitive elements
introducing a third element
seeking others opinions and information
theory of planned behaviour
attitudes towards a specific behaviour combines with subjective norms and perceived control influence a person’s intentions which turn to behaviours
subjective norm
peoples belief about how other people will view behaviour in question
perceived behaviour control
the ease with which people believe they can perform the behaviour
Types of explanations when making attributions
ability (I am smart)
task difficultly (that exam was too hard)
effort (I did well because I studied)
luck
isomorphic attribution
the practice of interpreting another person's behavior by understanding the meaning they attribute to it within their own cultural context (bojack in fish ville)
in individualistic cultures people tend attribute success to ____ and failure to ____
success attributed to ability and failure to external factors
fundamental attribution error is a …..
western phenomenon
Masuda and Nisbete fish study
American and japansese students asked to recall details about an image of fish that was flashed on screen
Japanese students reported more details about the supporting case in the photo
when biracial students were shown images symbolizing the collectivist culture they were from they…
made more situational attributions about the fish image than those who were shown images representing the individualistic culture they were also apart of
self serving attributions
the tendency of explaining one’s success to internal disposition factors and one’s failures to external factors
self effacement or modesty bias
the tendency to make internal attribution for failure and external attributions for success
conformity
a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined pressure from others
informational social influence
accepting others interpretation of an ambiguous reality in order to obtain accurate info
normative social influence
conforming to other people in order to be liked or accepted by them
Factors related to conformity
nature of the task (ambiguity and difficulty)
individual differences (higher in children)
group size
difficult tasks cause
informational and normative influences
easy tasks cause
only normative influence
informational conformity
individual changes behaviour or belief to match group
normative confomrity
desire to gain social acceptance and fit in with social group
Multigenrational norms
in a study in which arbitrtay norms are established, researchers ship of thesis the participants out but the norm will continue
priming
increased accessibility to a given concept or schema due to prior experience
primacy effect
the tendency for information that is presented earlier to have a greater impact on judgements than info presented later
illusory correlation
the tendency to see a correlation between two events when in reality there is no association between the two
unrealistic optimisim
the tendency for people to see themselves as less likely then others to suffer bad events in future
belief perseverance
the tendency to maintain and even strengthen beliefs in the face of disconfirming evidence
individualistic cultures and students are often rated low in….
conformity
obedience
conformity in response to the commands of an authority
Milgram’s study concluded this was important in obedience:
proximity to victim
proximity of authority
feeling of responsibility
credibility of study
fear of authority
legitimacy of the authority