Scientific Foundations of Psychology

Psychology Unit 1

Curiosity

Curiosity

When put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?

Skepticism

What do you mean? How do you know?

Humility

Researchers must be willing to be surprised and follow new ideas. People and other animals don’t always behave as our ideas and beliefs would predict.

Wilhelm Wundt

First psychological laboratory in 1879. Founded school of thought called structuralism. Focused on introspection (looking inward and examining ones own mental state) and basic cognitive structures.

Structuralism

Idea that mind operates combining objective sensations and subjective emotions.

William James

Published psychology’s first textbook in 1890. Took on the first female psychology student. Wundt and Jams helped establish the science of psychology, but their ideas no longer influence modern psychological thought

Functionalism

Examined how Wundt’s cognitive structures function in our lives

Mary Calkins

First woman to study psychology under William James. Became first female president of the American Psychological Association.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first official female psychology Ph.D. She also wrote an influential book, The Animal Mind. Became the second female president of the APA.

Behaviorism

The scientific study of observable behavior

Sigmund Freud

Another major force, Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic psychology which emphasized the was our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior.

Dorothea Dix

An American advocate on behalf of the indigen mentally ill

G. Stanley Hall

An American psychologist and educator who earned the firs doctorate in psychology awarded in the USA at Harvad College.

Behavior

Anything an organism does; any action we can observe and record

Mental Processes

The internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior-sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings.

Behavioral

The source of our actions is in environmental stimuli, rather than in inner mental processes.

Biological

Causes of behavior in the functioning of genes, the brain and nervous system, and the endocrine (hormones) system.

Cognitive

Emphasizes mental processes, such as memory, perception and thinking, as forms of information processing.

Evolutionary

Behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptions for survival and reproduction (based on research by Charles Darwin)

Humanistic

Clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.

Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic

Emphasizes the understanding of patients in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflicts.

Social-cultural

Emphasizes the importance of social interactions, social learning, culture on how people think and behave.

Scientific Method

A scientific attitude that combines curiosity, skepticism, and humility

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definitions

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

Replicate

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case studies

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recoding behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying o manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)

Scatterplots

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation

Negative Correlation

If two sets of scores relate inversely, one set going up as the other goes down.

Positive Correlation

If two sets of scores, such as for height and weight, tend to rise or fall together.

Illusionary correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the depend variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Double blind procedure

An experiment procedure in which both the research participants and the search staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo. Commonly used in drug evaluation studies.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effects on behavior caused by the administrator of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

Informed consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debrief

The post experimental explanation of a study, including tis purpose and any deceptions to its participants.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Measures of central tendency

A single score that represents a whole set of scores

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

The arithmetic average of the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Goal of scientific research

Description, explanation, prediction, and control (treatment)

Applied Research

Practical studies that are used to help people

Basic Research

Explores questions that are interesting to psychologists, but have little practical value

Sampling

Before testing a hypothesis, you need to decide on who to study, this is the sample

Participants (Samples)

Individuals who are being tested

Target population

The entire group you intend to study

Sample

A representative subset of your target population

Stratified sampling

The researcher ensures that the sample represents the population

Counterbalancing

A technique used to deal with order effect when using a repeated measure design. With counterbalancing, the participant sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the condition in the reverse order.

Single-blind studies

participants do not know whether are in the experimental or control group

Central Tendency

Marking the center of distribution

Outliers

An extreme score is very high and most scores are low

Histogram

Graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, using bars

The measure of variability

Show the diversity in a distribution (how similar or diverse the scores are); include range and standard deviation)

Range

The distance between highest and lowest score in a distribution

Standard deviation

Measure of how spread-out numbers are specifically the typical distance between each data point and the mean

Z score

Measure the distance of a score from the mean in units of started deviation

Normal Curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve

Percentile

Indicate distance of a score from 0

Sampling error

the extent to which a sample differs from the population

Statistical significance

when the results between 2 groups are large enough that it probably didnt occur by chance

p value

probability that the result (difference) between the control and experimental group) is due to chance alone, derived from a t-test

Hawk

TUAH!