Unit 1 AP Psych

Nature vs. Nurture (Heredity vs. Environmental factors)

whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

evolutionary perspective

the theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

natural selection (eugenics)

study of factors that influence the hereditary qualities of the human race and ways to improve those qualities

twin studies

A research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.

- common method of figuring out nature v. nurture

family studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

adoption studies

assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

central nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

autonomic nervous system

- A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system

- Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands

somatic nervous system

- A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system

- Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles

neural system

a population of neurons that communicate across the boundaries between brain regions

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

spinal cord reflex

automatic response to a sensory stimulus, causes a behavior to occur, the brain is not involved

sensory neurons

neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

all or nothing principle

The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

resting potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

multiple sclerosis

myelin sheath destruction. disruptions in nerve impulse conduction

brain stem (including medulla, RAS, cerebellum)

- involuntary func

-medulla: basic involuntary func.

ex: heart rate, blood pressure, breathing

- RAS

- Cerebellum: balance and equilibrium

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

split brain research

Surgical cutting of the corpus callosum to study the effects of disconnecting the right and left brain hemispheres - specifically, the independent functioning of the two hemispheres.

epilepsy

chronic brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizure activity

Broca's area

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

apahsia

inability to speak

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

left side of brain controls right side of body while right brain controls left body except smell

brain plasticity

The capacity for the brain to alter its structure and function.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

lesioning

involves destroying a piece of the brain

dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

-Oversupply linked to schizophrenia.

- Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease.

serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal.

- Undersupply linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal;

- undersupply can depress mood

glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter;

- involved in memory

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

substance P

pain perception

Acetylcholine

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

inhibitory: relaxes brain; excitatory: stimulates brain

adrenaline

A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress

leptin

protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

ghrelin

hunger hormone

melatonin

sleep-inducing hormone

Oxytocin

Stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection.

agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

antagonist

blocks neurotransmitter

stimulant

A drug that increases the action of the central nervous system, the heart, and other organs

caffiene

stimulant - increases activity of the nervous system

cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant

- producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

alcohol

Depressant

Hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs, such as LSD or marijuana, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Marijuana (THC)

a mild hallucinogen causing enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation, but could adversely cause disrupted memory or lung damage from smoke

opiods

A class of drugs that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects, including pain relief and feelings of euphoria.

heroin

narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

Conciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

circadion rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Jet lag and shift work

a disruption of circadian rhythms

sleep stages

Levels of sleep identified by brain-wave patterns and behavioral changes

NREM

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

REM

describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases

REM deprivation

results in greater attempts to reach REM and causes REM Rebound once the deprived person can sleep freely

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Consolidation theory

The theory that sleep helps strengthen the neural connections that form our memories.

- neural pathways = strengthened

activation-synthesis theory

a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories

Effects of sleep deprivation

Diminished productivity, irritability, fatigue

Weight increase (ghrelin & cortisol increase, leptin decrease)

Immune system suppression

Slows reaction time and increases errors

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

REM sleep behavior disorder

a neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

somnambulism

the condition of walking or performing some other activity without awakening; also known as sleepwalking

- during NREM

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

absolute threshold

the weakest amount of a stimulus that a person can detect half the time

just noticeable difference

the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Synesthesia

describing one kind of sensation in terms of another

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

retina

Light sensitive layer of the eye; contains rods and cones

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

ganglion cells

their axons form the optic nerve

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another (light -> neural activity/ neurochemical)

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye and no receptor cells are located there.

Nearsightedness/Farsightedness

-Nearsighted (close objects seen, far objects are blurry b/c focus point of light falls before the retina)

-Farsighted (close objects blurry, far objects seen b/c focus point of light falls before the retina)

trichromatic theory

theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green

opponnent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

wavelength and color

Different wavelengths of light are associated with our perception of different colors.

Longer wavelengths = reds

Intermediate wavelengths = greens

Shorter wavelengths = blues and violets

afterimage effect

when the eye sees the complementary color of something that the viewer has spent an extended time viewing

color vision deficiency

inability to perceive color differences

Prosopagnosia

inability to recognize familiar faces